rHE  volumes  of  the  Hu7nanistic  Series  are  published  by 
authority  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  The  contributors  are  chiefly,  but  not  exclusively, 
members  of  the  faculties  or  graduates  of  the  University. 
The  expense  is  borne  in  part  by  gifts,  in  part  by  appropria- 
tions of  the  Board  of  Regents.  A  list  of  the  volumes  thus 
far  published  or  arranged  is  given  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 


QXrxivttQxt^  of  QYlic^tgan  ^txxbicQ 
HUMANISTIC  SEBIES 


VOLUME  II 


WORD-FORMATION  IN  PROVENCAL 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  VORK   •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


WORD-FORMATION 

IN 

PROVENCAL 


BY 

EDWARD   L.  ADAMS 

UNIVERSITY   OF  MICHIGAN 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &  COMPANY,   LIMITED 
I9I3 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Copyright  191  3  By 
The  Macmillan  Company 


Printed  June,  191 3 


Composed  and  Printe<i  By 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 


^^^^  SANTA  BAiiBABA     "'^ 

A3 


PREFACE 

The  following  study  had  its  origin  as  part  of  the  work 
for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. The  original  plan  was  to  write  a  complete  treatise 
on  word-formation  in  Proven9al ;  but  lack  of  time  limited 
the  doctoral  dissertation  to  "The  Formation  of  Nouns 
and  Adjectives  in  Provengal  by  the  Addition  of  Suffixes," 
or  chapters  i  and  ii  of  Part  I  of  the  present  work.  Since 
the  time  of  the  presentation  of  my  thesis,  however,  acting 
on  the  advice  of  Professor  Grandgent  of  Harvard,  I  con- 
tinued to  develop  the  subject  according  to  the  original 
plan,  while  teaching  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 

This  work  is  intended  to  be  a  complete  treatment  of 
word-formation  in  Old  Provencal.  Its  purpose  is  to 
study  the  various  processes  by  which  words  were  formed 
in  that  language,  and  to  give  complete  lists  of  all  such 
formations.  The  method  of  treatment  differs  somewhat 
from  that  employed  by  Meyer-Liibke  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  grammar,  in  studying  all  the  Romance  languages, 
and  also  from  those  used  by  Darmesteter  and  Nyrop  for 
French;  but  I  hope  that  it  will  be  equally  clear.  The 
main  sources  for  the  words  given  in  the  lists  are,  of 
course,  the  dictionaries  of  Raynouard  and  Levy;  but 
words  from  other  sources  are  not  excluded.^ 

An  explanation  of  the  method  of  treatment  is  per- 
haps necessary.  To  begin  with,  the  work  is  divided 
into  Parts,  according  to  the  process  of  word-formation 

1  Thus  words  found  in  any  critical  texts  are  included.  There  are 
very  few  such  words,  however.  Many  of  them  belong  to  the  part  of  the 
alphabet  not  reached  by  Levy  in  his  published  volumes  when  this  work 
went  to  press.  All  words  not  taken  from  Raynouai'd  and  Levy  will  be 
indicated  in  the  notes. 


VI 


Preface 


stiuliod.  Thus  thoro  are  formations  (I)  ])y  means  of 
suffixes;  (II)  by  moans  of  prefixes;  (III)  l)y  means  of 
l)otii  use<l  at  the  same  time,  or  the  ])arasyntheta;  (IV) 
other  methods  of  formation,  inehuhnf";  both  the  post- 
verbal  nouns  and  the  compound  wortls;  and  (V)  the 
liybrids,  or  the  words  in  which  the  methods  of  Parts  I  and 
IV  are  coml)ined.  In  each  of  these  larger  divisions  or 
Farts,  th(>re  are  subdivisions,  or  chapters,  according  to 
the  part  of  speech  formed  by  the  process  under  considera- 
tion. Thus  there  are  the  Formation  of  Nouns,  the 
Formation  of  Adjectives,  of  Verbs,  etc.;  and,  furthermore, 
in  each  chapter  of  the  first  three  parts,  each  individual 
suffix  or  prefix  is  studied  separately.  Each  one  is  taken 
up  in  its  alphabetical  order,  and  traced  from  its  Latin 
origin  to  Provengal,  all  the  words  formed  by  means  of  it 
in  Pr<n'engal  being  given  in  lists. 

A  further  description  of  these  word-lists,  however,  may 
perhaps  be  useful.  The  derived  words  are  listed  alpha- 
betically in  the  left-hand  column,  and  beside  each  word, 
in  another  column  is  given  the  simple  word  on  which 
it  was  formed.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious:  since 
the  meanings  are  given  beside  l)oth  the  simple  and  the 
derived  word,  any  change  in  meaning  conveyed  by  the 
suffix  or  prefix  is  at  once  apparent.  Yet  in  the  case  of 
the  more  complicated  suffixes  and  prefixes,  the  word- 
lists  themselves  are  sometimes  subdivided.  The  sub- 
divisions occur  whenever  these  particles  are  used  with 
two  or  more  different  parts  of  speech;  and  also,  less  fre- 
(luently,  wh(>n  the  meanings  they  give  the  simple  word  are 
greatly  varied.  Such,  at  any  rate,  is  the  plan  generally 
followed  in  making  the  word-lists.  In  a  few  cases,  ho\*v'- 
ever,  whole  lists  have  been  treated  in  great  detail,  as, 
for  example,  the  words  in  which  the  suffix  -ADOR  is 


Preface  vii 

apparently  added  to  nouns. ^  The  suffix  most  subdivided 
in  its  treatment  to  illustrate  its  different  meanings  is  -ON.^ 
A  few  other  lists  consisting  of  words  whose  formation 
is  uncertain  are  treated  in  detail.^ 

Although  the  words  formed  in  Provengal  are  placed 
in  word-lists  under  the  proper  suffix  or  prefix,  there  is 
another  kind  of  word  having  suffix  or  prefix  that  it  would 
be  improper  to  list  in  this  way.  These  words,  are,  of 
course,  the  Provengal  developments  of  words  already 
existing  in  Latin:  yet  as  such  words  are  identical  in 
form  with  the  true  Provengal  formations,  it  seemed  unwise 
to  neglect  them  altogether.  These  words,  therefore, 
with  their  Latin  sources  indicated,  are  brought  together 
in  a  note  at  the  end  of  each  word-list.  Such  notes  are 
placed  below  the  ones  on  individual  words,  and  are  indi- 
cated by  a  dagger,  a  corresponding  one  being  placed  by 
the  last  word  in  the  list.  Obscure  words  also  are  treated 
in  these  notes,  and  their  probable  formation  suggested. 
Thus  all  the  words  not  clearly  formed  by  the  suffix,  or  the 
prefix,  or  the  method  under  consideration,  will  be  treated 
in  i^otes  of  this  kind. 

Complete  indices  of  all  the  words  treated  onlj'  in  the 
notes,  as  well  as  indices  both  of  the  Provengal  suffixes  and 
prefixes  and  of  the  Latin  ones  are  given;  but  as  it  should 
be  a  very  simple  matter  to  find  anj^  word  in  the  lists, 
or,  in  other  words,  any  Provengal  formation,  by  looking 
under  the  proper  sufiix  or  prefix,  it  has  not  been  thought 
necessary  to  make  a  general  index  of  all  these  words.  The 
only  possible  cases  of  difficulty  are  found  among  the  words 

1  Beginning  on  p.  45.  Tliis  list  is  so  treated  in  order  to  illustrate 
from  the  very  first  how  suffixes  often  came  to  be  added  to  other  parts  of 
speech  than  those  with  which  they  are  originally  found. 

2  P.  243. 

3  Pp.  19,  73,  76,  S3,  111,  127,  143,  179,  277,  etc. 


viii  Preface 

havin<i  both  suffix  and  iircfix.  In  such  cases,  it  may  occa- 
sionally bo  necessary  to  look  in  two  places,  since  the  words 
may  not  be  real  parasyntheta.  Such  words  are,  however, 
listecl  twice,  or  even  three  times,  and  cross-referenced. 

In  order  to  find  easily  any  word  in  the  lists,  neverthe- 
less, a  (.lescription  of  the  system  of  spelling  used  is  essential. 
The  system  adopted  here  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
used  by  Levy  in  his  Provenzalisches  Supplement-Wdrter- 
huch.  Thus  the  voiceless  sibilant  is  written  s,^  the 
voiced  one  z;  palatal  I  and  n  are  written  Ih  and  7ih;  c  and 
g  are  written  before  a  instead  of  ch  and  gu;  i  is  regularly 
written  for  y;  movable  n  is  preserved  whereas  movable  t 
(after  n)  is  dropped;  ch  is  used  to  indicate  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Latin  ct;  open  e  and  o  are  not  diphthongized; 
and  the  forms  -ANSA,  -ATGE,  -EJAR,  and  -EZA  are 
selected  from  the  number  of  forms  under  which  these  suf- 
fixes are  found.  To  all  of  these  rules  of  spelling  adopted 
from  Levy,  it  has  seemed  wise  to  add  some  others  in  order 
that  words  may  be  found  without  difficulty.  Thus,  with 
the  exception  of  double  r,  no  double  consonants  are  used; 
initial  h  is  never  used;  I  is  not  vocalized  to  it?  {fals,  oltra, 
etc.);  i  is  written  in  gitar  and  intrar  and  their  com- 
pounds instead  of  e;  and  where  there  is  hesitation  between 
0  and  u  (pojar,  pujar,  foe,  fuc)  o  is  used.  All  these 
rules  make  the  spelling  system  adopted  here  so  exact 
that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  it  should  be  possible  to 
find  any  word  at  once.  Where  the  rules  leave  the  slightest 
doubt,  however,  as  to  the  spelling  of  any  word,  it  will  be 
found  listed  twice  and  cross-referenced. 

'  Double  8  is  written  in  the  few  cases  in  which  the  prefix  ends  in 
s  and  the  base-word  begins  with  it.  This  is  the  only  way  to  distinguish 
the  prefixes  DE-  and  DES-. 

5  Except  in  a  very  few  cases  in  which  the  form  with  u  is  the  only  one 
found. 


Preface  ix 

In  addition  to  the  spelling,  there  are  two  questions 
of  .typography  that  should  be  mentioned — the  use  of 
italics  and  of  abbreviations.  The  latter  are  used  onlj-  in 
the  notes,  and  a  key  to  them  is  given  below.  The  italics 
are  used  for  the  Provengal  words  in  the  lists,  and  for 
foreign  words  of  all  kinds  wherever  they  occur.  They 
are  also  generally  used  for  the  verbal  endings  -ar,  -ir, 
etc.  But  when  these  endings  are  used  in  forming  new 
words,  as  in  chapter  iii  of  Part  I,  they  are  treated  just  as 
suffixes. 

In  a  work  of  the  length  of  this  one,  the  writing  of  which 
has  occupied  a  number  of  j^ears,  it  is  impossible,  I  fear, 
in  spite  of  the  greatest  of  care,  to  avoid  occasional  incon- 
sistencies of  treatment  and  mistakes,  and  I  am  painfully 
conscious  of  their  probable  existence.  A  further  difficulty 
lies  in  the  fact  that  one  of  my  principal  sources,  the  dic- 
tionary of  Levy,  has  been  appearing  while  this  work  was  in 
progress,^  and  this  has  necessitated  additions  and  changes 
in  it  from  time  to  time.  The  abridged  edition  of  the 
complete  work  appeared  some  time  ago,  however,  and 
has  been  of  much  service,  particularly^  for  the  part  not 
yet  reached  by  the  larger  work. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  thank  all  those  who  have 
helped  me  with  advice  and  encouragement.  First  of  all, 
to  Professor  Grandgent  of  Harvard,  who  suggested  the 
subject,  and  to  Professors  Sheldon  and  Ford,  who,  with 
him  read  and  made  suggestions  on  the  original  manu- 
script, I  wish  here  to  express  my  gratitude  for  advice 
and  kindness.  To  Professor  Kelsey  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  for  his  help  in  matters  connected  with  the 
printing  of  the  work  and  his  unfaiHng  interest  in  it, 
and  to  Professor  Canfield  and  Mr.  W.  A.  McLaughlin 

'  It  had  reached  the  letter  r  when  this  work  went  to  press. 


X  Preface 

of  the  same  university  for  suggestions  on  the  proof,  I  am 
also  greatly  indebted.  And,  finally,  to  Professor  Hamilton 
of  Cornell,  for  his  great  care  in  reading  the  whole  manu- 
script just  before  it  went  to  press,  his  invaluable  sugges- 
tions at  all  times  and  his  encouragement,  I  can  but 
inadequately  express  my  appreciation  and  gratitude. 

Edward  L.  Adams 

February,  1913 


CONTENTS 


Key  to  Abbreviations  Used  in  the  Notes 


PAGE 

xiv 


PART  I:  SUFFIX-FORMATION 


Introductory:  Suffix-Formation  in 

General 

3 

I.    Formation  of  Nouns 

6 

II.    Forivlvtion  of  Adjectives  . 

265 

III.    Formation  of  Verbs    . 

332 

IV.    FoRivL\TiON  of  Adverbs 

373 

V.    Double  Suffixes  . 

380 

A.  Real  Double  Suffixes 

381 

I.  Forming  Nouns 

382 

11.  Forming  Adjectives 

386 

III.  Forming  Verbs 

388 

B.  Compound  Suffixes    . 

388 

I.  Forming  Nouns 

393 

II.  Forming  Adjectives 

402 

III.  Forming  Verbs 

403 

PART  II:   PREFIX-FORMATION 

Introductory:  Prefix-Formation  in  General     .       .  407 

I.    Formation  of  Verbs 409 

II.   Formation  of  Nouns 462 

III.  Formation  of  Adjectives 481 

IV.  Double  Prefixes 489 

A.  Compound  Prefixes 490 

B.  Real  Double  Prefixes 491 

xi 


xii  Contents 

PART  III:    PARASYNTHETA 

PAGE 

Introductory:  Pauasyntheta  in  General                  .  499 

I.    Formation  of  Verbs 501 

A.  The  Ending  -ar  Used  together  with  the  Differ- 
ent Prefixes  in  Formations 504 

I.  On  Nouns 504 

II.  On  Adjectives 515 

III.  On  Verb-stems 517 

B.  The  Ending  -ir  Used  together  with  the  Differ- 
ent Prefixes  in  Formations 517 

I.  On  Nouns 518 

II.  On  Adjectives 519 

C.  Other  Endings  Used  in  the  Formation  of  Verbal 
Parasyntheta 522 

II.    Formation  of  Nouns 525 

A.  By  the  Use  of  Suffixes  Generally  Added  to  Verbs  526 

B.  By  the  Use  of  Suffixes  Generally  Added  to  Nouns  528 
III.    Formation  of  Adjectives 529 

I.  Formations  on  Verb-stems 529 

II.  Formations  on  Nouns 530 

III.  Irregular  Adjectival  Parasyntheta       .        .        .531 

PART  IV:   OTHER  METHODS  OF  WORD-FORMATION 


Introductory:    Words  Formed  without  the  Use  of 
Suffix  or  Prefix   . 
I.    Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs 

A.  Postverbal  Nouns 

B.  Verb-Forms  Used  as  Nouns 
II.    Compound  Words 

A.  Formation  of  Nouns 

I.  Nouns  Formed  of  an  Adjectiv 


535 
536 
537 

548 

550 

552 

e  and  a  Noun    552 


II.  Nouns  Formed  of  an  Adverb  and  a  Noun   .     556 


Contents 


Xlll 


PAGE 

III.  Nouns  Formed  of  Two  Nouns        .        .        .     557 

IV.  Nouns  Formed  of  a  Verb  and  a  Noun  561 

B.  Formation  of  Adjectives 566 

I.  Formed  of  a  Noun  and   an  Adjective  (or 

Participle) 566 

II.  Formed  of  an  Adverb  (or  Adjective)  and  an 

Adjective  (or  Participle) 569 

C.  Formation  of  Verbs 571 

I.  Formed  of  an  Adverb  and  a  Verb    .        .        .571 
II.  Formed  of  a  Noun  and  a  Verb         .        .        .571 

D.  Formation  of  Adverbs 573 


PART  V:  HYBRIDS 

I.  Words  in  Which  the  Methods  of  Parts  I  and  IV 
Are  Combined 

A.  Formation  of  Nouns 

B.  Formation  of  Adjectives 

C.  Formation  of  Verbs 

D.  Formation  of  Adverbs  . 


577 

578 
581 
582 
582 


KEY  TO  THE   ABBREVIATIONS  USED   IN  THE 
NOTES 

I.    Titles  oe  Books  and  Periodicals 
ALL  =  Archiv  fur   Lateinische   Lexikographie   und   Grammatik, 

herausgegeben  von  E.  Wolfflin,  Leipzig,  1884-. 
Appcl  =  Appel  (C),  Provenzalischc  Chrestomathie.     Leipzig,  1895. 
Bonnet  =  Bonnet  (M.),  Le  Latin  de  Gregoire  de  Tours.     Paris, 

1890. 
Cooper  =  Cooper  (F.  T.),  Word-Formation  in  the  Roman  Sermo 

Plebeius.     New  York,  1895. 
Die.  Gen.  =  Hatzfcid,  Darmesteter  et  Thomas,  Dictionnaire  general 

de  la  langue  frangaise  du  commencement  da  XVII^  siecle 

jusqu'a  nos  jours,  precede  d'un  traite  de  la  formation  de  la 

langue.     Paris. 
Diez  =  Diez    (F.),   Etymologisches   Worterbuch   der   romanischen 

Sprachen.     FUnfte  Ausgabe.     Bonn,  1887. 
Du  Cange  =  Du  Cange,  Glossarium  mediae  et  infimae  latinitatis, 

digessit  G.  A.  L.  Henschel.     Paris,  1840-50. 
£'ssais  =  Thomas    (A.),    Essais   de   philologie  frangaise.     Paris, 

1897. 
Etym.   W6rterb.  =  Meyev-LiXhke   (W.),   Romanisches  Etymologi- 
sches Worterbuch.     Heidelberg,   1911-. 
Godef roy  =  Godef roy    (F.),    Dictionnaire   de   Vancienne   langue 

frangaise  et  de  tous  ses  dialectes,  du    IX^  au  XV^  siecle. 

Paris,  1881-1902. 
Goelzer  =  Goelzer   (H.),  Etude  lexicograqMque  et  grammaticale 

de  la  latinite  de  Saint-Jerome.     Paris,  1884. 
Grandgent  =  Grandgent  (C.  H.),  An  Outline  of  the  Phonology  and 

Morphology  of  Old  Provengal.     Boston,  1905. 
Grober  =  Grober    (G.),    Grundriss   der   romanischen    Philologie. 

Strassburg,  1888-97. 
Herrig^s  Archiv  =  Archiv  fur  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen 

und  Literaturen,  herausgegeben  von  L.  Herrig.     Elberfeld, 

tlien  Braunschweig,  1846-. 
Korting  =  Korting     (G.,)     Lateinisch-romanisches     Worterbuch. 

3*  Ausgabe.     Paderborn,  1907. 


Key  to  Abbreviations  xv 

Leiie  =  Lene  (G.),  Les  substantifs  postverbaux  daiis  la  langue 
frangaise.     Upsala,  1899. 

Levy  =  Levy  (E.),  Provenzalisches  Supplement-Wdrterbuch.  Be- 
richtigungen  und  Ergdnzungen  zu  Raynouards  Lexique 
roman.  Leipzig,  1894-.  Little  Levy  =  Levy  (E.),  Petit 
Dictionnaire  Provengal-Frangais.     Heidelberg,  1909. 

Litbl.  =  Literatnrblatt  fiir  germanische  und  romanische  Philologie, 
herausgegeben  von.  0.  Behagel  und  Fr.  Neumann.  Heil- 
bronn,  then  Leipzig,  1880-. 

Melanges  =  Thomas  (A.) ,  Melanges  d^etymologie  frangaise.  Paris, 
1902. 

Meyer-Liibke  =  Meyer- Llibke  (W.),  Grammaire  des  langues 
romanes:  Traduction  frangaise  par  E.  Rabiet,  A.  et  G. 
Doutrepont.    Paris,  1890-1906. 

Mistral  =  Mistral  (F.),  Lou  Tresor  dou  felibrige,  ou  dictionnaire 
provengal-Jrangais.     Aix-en-Provence,  1878. 

Mod.  Lang.  Notes  =  Modern  Language  Notes.     Baltimore,  1886-. 

Mod.  Phil.  =  Modern  Philology.     Chicago,  1903-. 

Mots  Composes  — Davmestetev  (A.),  Traite  de  la  formation  des 
mots  composes  dans  la  langue  frangaise  coniparee  aux  autres 
langues  romanes  et  au  latin.     Paris,  1894. 

Mots  A^ow.  =  Darmesteter  (A.),  De  la  creation  actuelle  de  jnots 
nouveaux  dans  la  langue  frangaise  et  des  lois  qui  la  regissent. 
Paris,  1877. 

Murray  =  Murray  (J.  A.  H.),  A  New  English  Dictionary  on 
Historical  Principles,  Founded  on  the  Materials  Collected 
by  the  Philological  Society.     Oxford,  1884-. 

Nouv.  £"§.5.  =  Thomas  (A.),  Nouveaux  essais  de  philologie  fran- 
gaise.    Paris,  1904. 

Olcott  =  Olcott  (G.  N.),  Studies  in  the  Word-Formation  of  the 
Latin  Inscriptions:  Substantives  and  Adjectives  ivith  Special 
Reference  to  the  Latin  "Sermo  Vidgaris."     Rome,  1898. 

Raynouard  =  Raynouard,  F.  J.  M.,  Lexique  roman,  ou  dictionnaire 
de  la  langue  des  troubadours,  comparee  avec  les  autres  langues 
de  r Europe  latine,  precede  de  nouvelles  recherches  historiques 
et  philologiques,  d'un  resume  de  la  grammaire  romane  d'un 
nouveau  choix  de  poesies  originales  des  troubadours  et  d'ex- 
traits  de  poemes  divers.     Paris,  1838-44. 


xvi  Key  to  Abbreviations 

Rev.  lies  long.  rom.  =  Revue  des  langues  romanes,  publiee  par  la 

socieie  pour  Vetude  des  langues  romanes.     Montpcllier,  1870-. 
Romania  =  Romania,  Recueil  trimestriel  consacre  a  Vetude   des 

langues  et  des  litteratures  romanes.     Paris,  1872-. 
Rom.    Forsch.  =  Romanische    Forschungen,    herausgegebeii    von 

K.  \'ollmoller.     Erlangen,   1883-. 
Rom.    Stud.  =  Romanische    Studien,    herausgegebeii    vou    Ed. 

Boehmer.     Halle,  then  Strassburg,  then  Bonn,  187 1-. 
Ronsch  =  Ronsch  (H.),  Itala  und  Vidgata:  Das  Sprachidiom  der 

urchristlichen  Itala  und  der  katholischen  Vulgata  unter  Be- 

rucksichtigung  der  romischen  Volkssprache  durch  Beispiele 

erldutert.     Marburg-Leipzig,  1869. 
Sternbeck  =  Sternbeck   (H.),    Unrichtige   Wortaufs{ellungen  und 

Wortdeutu7igen  in  Raynouard's  "  Lexique  roman."    I.  Teil: 

Unrichtige  Wortaufstellungen. 
Stichel  =  Stichel    (K.),   Beitrdge   zur   Lexikographie   des   altpro- 

venzalischen  Verbums  (in  Ausgaben  und  Abhandlungen  a.  d. 

Gebiet  d.  romanisch.  Philologie,LXXXYl).    Marburg,  1890. 
Stud.  Rom.  =  Studi  difilologia  romanza,  pubblicati  da  E.  Monaci. 

Rome,  then  Turin,   1885-. 
Suffixumndlungen  =  Cohn  (G.),  Die  Suffixioandlungen  im  Vulgdr- 

latein  und  im  vorlitterarischen  Franzosisch  nach  ihren  Spuren 

im  Neufranzosischen.    Halle,  1891. 
Zeitschrift  =  Zeitschrift  fiir  romanische  Philologie,  herausgegeben 

von  G.  Grober.     Halle,  1877-. 
Works    referred  to   only   once  are  given   with   their  complete 
titles  in  the  text  itself. 

n.     Other  Abbreviations 

art.  =  article 

chap.  =  chapter 

ci.  =  confer,  compare 

dim.  =  diminutive 

Engl.  =  English 

fern.  =  feminine 

Fr.  =  French;  0.  Fr.  =  Old  French;  Mod.  Fr.  =  Modern  French 

Germ.  =  Germanic 

Gr.  =  Greek 

It.  =  Italian 


Key  to  Abbreviations  xvii 

Lat.  =  Latin;  Med.  Lat.  =  Mediaeval  Latin;  Vulg.  Lat.= 
Vulgar  Latin;  Class.  Lat.  =  Classical  Latin;  Eccles.  Lat.= 
Ecclesiastical  Latin. 

m.  =  masculine 

n.  =  note 

p.  =  page;  pp.  =  pages 

Port.  =  Portuguese 

Prov.  =  Provencal;  0.  Prov.  =  01d  Provengal;  Mod.  Prov.= 
Modern  Proven5al. 

sec.  =  section 

Sp.  =  Spanish 

Vol.  =  volume 

*  placed  before  a  word  indicates  that  it  is  not  found 

<  is  used  in  giving  the  Latin  sources  of  Provencal  words 

>  is  used  in  giving  the  Romance  developments  of  Latin  words 


PART  I 
SUFFIX-FORMATION 


INTRODUCTORY 
SUFFIX-FORMATION  IN  GENERAL 

By  suffix-formation  in  Provengal  is  meant  the  addition 
of  suffixes  of  any  origin,  whether  Latin,  Greek,  or  Ger- 
manic, to  Provengal  words.  In  order  to  be  studied  here, 
the  cases  found  in  Provengal  of  words  ending  with  given 
suffixes  must  be  not  merely  Provengal  forms  of  words 
already  existing  in  Latin,  but  actual  Provengal  formations. 
The  suffix  as  well  as  the  simple  word  itself  may  be  of  Latin 
origin,  but  the  joining  of  the  two  must  have  been  made 
in  Romance  times  if  the  word  is  to  be  considered  here. 
Yet  this  does  not  preclude  a  description  of  the  Latin 
origin  and  use  of  each  individual  suffix.  Provengal,  like 
the  other  Romance  languages,  generally  continued  to 
make  use  of  processes  begun  in  Latin,  but  developed  very 
extensively  certain  ones,  while  allowing  other  processes, 
and  even  certain  suffixes,  to  drop  out  of  use.  It  is  difficult 
to  name  positively  any  one  process  as  being  of  Provengal, 
or  even  Romance,  origin:  but  as  the  developments  of 
processes  begun  in  Latin  times  are  so  very  great,  it  may 
be  worth  while  to  study  their  aspects  in  Provengal. 
Suffixes  of  non-Latin  origin,  as  the  Greek  and  Germanic 
ones,  have  been  mentioned  above,  but  the  Germanic 
forms  are  exceedingly  few,  and,  even  when  existing,  are 
found  in  relatively  few  words;  and  the  Greek  suffixes 
passed  first,  of  course,  through  Latin,  where  they  under- 
went some  modifications.  It  is,  therefore,  to  Latin  that 
the  forms  and  uses  of  almost  all  of  the  suffixes  treated 
here  will  be  traced. 

Since  the  joining  together  of  the  simple  word  and  the 
suffix  must  have  been  accomplished  in  Romance  times, 

3 


4  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

or  after  the  Latin  periotl,  in  order  to  be  treated  liere,  it 
is  proper  to  mention  the  methods  of  determining  this 
important  and  often  difficult  point.  Frequently  the 
form  itself  of  the  word  gives  sufficient  indication  of  Latin 
origin  to  exclude  it  from  our  lists.  Yet  caution  must 
be  used  in  thus  excluding  words,  for  often  the  addition 
of  the  suffix,  especially  when  it  had  Ijecome  popular  in 
forming  words  of  any  given  type,  occurred  late.  Gener- 
ally, the  process  is  one  of  elimination:  if  the  source  for 
any  word  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  dictionaries 
of  Latin,  Mcdiae\'al  Latin,  or  books  on  word-formation 
in  Vulgar  Latin  and  in  the  inscriptions,  or  in  works  on 
the  latinity  of  late  writers  such  as  Gregory  of  Tours  and 
St.  Jerome,  and  is  not  found  in  so  many  of  the  Romance 
languages  as  to  indicate  a  common  source  in  Latin,  it  is 
assumed  to  be  a  Provengal  formation. 

Before  leaving  the  general  subject  of  suffix-formation 
to  study  the  formation  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  it 
is  necessarj^  to  describe  the  forms  and  the  order  under 
which  the  suffixes  are  listed.  In  treating  Provencal, 
it  has  seemed  appropriate  as  well  as  convenient  to  deal 
with  Proven9al  forms  instead  of  the  Latin  suffixes  from 
which  they  are  derived.  The  difference  in  treatment 
thus  necessitated  may  be  made  clear  by  an  example: 
the  Latin  -MENTUM  added  to  stems  of  verbs  of  the 
different  conjugations  gave  in  Provengal  the  three  suffixes 
-AMEN,  -EMEN,  and  -IMEN,  or,  in  other  words,  -MEN 
plus  the  stem-vowel  of  each  conjugation.  In  the  same 
way  the  Latin  -TIONE  gave  -AZON,  -EZON  and  -IZON, 
and  -TURA  gave  -ADURA,  -EDURA  and  -IDURA.i 
Each  of  these  groups,  however,  will  be  treated  as  a  single 

'  These  throe  forms  are  naturally  found  only  when  the  suffix  was 
added  to  verbs,  but  both  nouns  and  adjectives  are  sometimes  so  formed. 


Suffix-Formation  in  General  5 

suffix  and  listed  under  the  form  of  the  first  conjugation, 
the  one  beginning  with  a. 

The  first  four  chapters  of  this  part  will  treat  the 
formation  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  by  the  addition 
of  a  single  suffix,  whereas  the  fifth  chapter  will  deal  with 
all  the  words  formed  by  the  addition  of  two  or  more 
suffixes. 


CHAPTER  I 

FORIMATION  OF  NOUNS 

Tlie  suffixes  that  form  nouns  constitute  by  far  the 
largest  and  most  important  kind  of  suffix-formations. 
The  study  of  them  may  be  begun  by  classifying  them 
according  to  the  meanings  they  give  the  nouns  that  they 
form.  Thus  there  are  abstract  suffixes,  suffixes  denoting 
the  agent  of  an  action  or  the  instrument  with  which  it  is 
performed,  collectives,  augmentatives  and  diminutives, 
and  a  few  suffixes  that  sometimes  give  no  force  to  the 
words  to  which  they  are  attached.  Yet  it  is  possible 
to  give  a  general  rule  concerning  the  part  of  speech  to 
which  each  kind  of  suffix  was  attached  in  order  to  form 
nouns.  Thus  the  abstract  suffixes — with  the  exception 
of  -lA,  detached  from  such  words  of  Greek  origin  as 
philosophia,  and  later  added  to  nouns  to  form  abstracts — 
were  added  either  to  stems  of  verbs  or  to  adjectives, 
the  ones  denoting  an  action  being  attached  to  verbs,  as 
-AMEN,  -ANSA,  -ADA,  -ADURA,  -AZON,  etc.,  and 
those  denoting  quality,  as  -EZA,  -TAT,  -OR,  and  -URA 
to  adjectives.  Of  the  suffixes  denoting  the  agent  of 
an  action,  onh'  -ADOR,  the  commonest  one,  is  attached 
to  verbs  as  would  be  expected;  but  the  other  suffixes 
with  this  force,  such  as  -AN,  -ES,  and  -lER,  originally 
formed  adjectives,  and  their  use  as  nouns  came  from  the 
use  of  these  adjectives  without  the  modified  noun,  which 
was  understood.  The  suffixes  denoting  the  instrument 
with  which  an  action  was  performed  were  usuallj'  attached 
to  verb-stems.  The  augmentatives  and  diminutives 
are  naturally  added  to  nouns,  as  are  the  collectives  and 
the  suffixes  denoting  place. 

6 


Formation  of  Nouns  7 

Before  going  farther,  it  may  be  well  to  describe  the 
confusion  that  occasionally  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
same  Provengal  form  is  sometimes  developed  from  suffixes 
of  entirely  different  origins,  and  having,  consequently, 
different  meanings.  It  should  not  be  assumed,  there- 
fore, that  because  the  same  form  may  appear  in  Pro- 
vencal words  of  very  different  meaning,  the  same  suffix 
is  necessarily  represented.  Several  illustrations  of  this 
possible  confusion  may  be  given.  Besides  -lER,  for  ex- 
ample, denoting  persons,  from  the  masculine  form  of  the 
adjective  ending  -ARIUS,  and  -lER  denoting  things, 
from  the  neuter  form  -ARIUM,  there  is,  in  addition, 
another  -lER  with  abstract  force  added  to  verb-stems. 
This  suffix  can  hardly  be  derived  from  -ARIUS,  however, 
or  we  should  have  an  almost  incredible  extension  of 
meaning  and  use  in  a  single  suffix.  This  last  -lER  seems 
to  come  from  -ERIUM,  which  ending  is  found  in  Latin 
in  improperium.  Properly,  it  is  not  a  Latin  suffix  at  all, 
however,  and  represents  only  the  suffix  -IUjNI  added  to 
the  stems  of  verbs  that  end  in  erare,  as  seen  in 
imperium,  which  is  formed  on  imperare;  yet  it  is  the 
source  of  a  number  of  Provencal  words.  Another  ex- 
ample of  this  same  kind  of  confusion  may  be  seen  in 
the  Provengal  -ALHA,  derived  from  -ACULA,  which 
was  added  to  verb-stems,  and  -ALHA,  from  -ALIA, 
which  was  added  to  nouns,  with  collective  force.  One 
more  example  of  this  confusion  is  seen  in  the  Provencal 
suffix  -ENC,  which  seems  to  be  derived  both  from  a  Ger- 
manic suffix  -ING  and  the  Latin  -ENCUM.  It  is  usually 
easy  to  distinguish  in  the  Provencal  word  the  origin  of  the 
suffix,  both  by  its  meaning  and  by  the  word  to  which  the 
suffix  is  attached,  although  some  words  are  real  puzzles.^ 

'  For  example,  curalha,  p.  80,  and  some  names  of  coins  in  -ENC, 
as  aigonenc,  arnaudenc,  etc.,  p.  180. 


8  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Leaving  out  of  consideration,  however,  the  cases  in 
which  one  Provengal  form  represents  different  suffixes, 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  suffixes  actually  did  contract 
new  meanings,  a  single  suffix  often  having  several  of  the 
kinds  of  meaning  mentioned  above.  This  acquiring  of 
new  meanings  bj^  a  suffix  is  a  process  which  had  its  origin 
in  Latin,  but  which  is,  perhaps,  especially  noticeable 
in  Provengal.  That  adjectives  were  often  used  sub- 
stantively has  been  stated,  and  the  various  meanings 
which  some  of  these  new  nouns  contract  may  be  shown 
by  again  making  use  of  the  convenient  -ARIUS.  All  three 
forms  of  this  adjectival  suffix  were  used  substantively, 
the  masculine  and  neuter  forms  giving  -lER,  and  the 
feminine,  -lERA.  The  word  made  by  the  addition  of 
the  masculine  form  denotes  the  agent  of  an  action,  and 
that  formed  by  the  neuter  meant  originally  a  place  for 
something,  a  specialized  form  of  this  meaning  being 
found  in  some  names  of  trees.  From  the  meaning  of  a 
place  for  a  thing  to  that  of  an  instrument  for  using  it  is 
but  a  step,  often  a  barel}'  perceptible  transition.^  This 
extension  of  meaning  may  be  carried  still  further,  from 
the  place  containing  many  things  to  the  number  of  things 
itself,  or  pure  collectives.^ 

The  developments  of  meaning  found  in  -lER,  from 
-ARIUAI,  make  but  a  typical  example  of  the  extensions 
of  meaning  found  in  certain  suffixes.  -ATGE,  from 
-ATICUM,  will  illustrate  this  process  still  further.  This 
ending,  originally  an  adjectival  suffix  attached  to  nouns 
with  the  meaning  of  a  tax  to  pay,  then,  apparently,  that 
of  a  feudal  right,  finally  acquiring  collective  force,  also 

'  As  in  such  words  as  brazier,  gotier,  etc.,  which  might  be  put  in 
either  list;  see  p.  223. 

2  For  example,  rainier,  thicket,  from  ram,  branch. 


Formation  of  Nouns  9 

forms  abstracts  denoting  action,  although  in  these  last 
cases,  in  accordance  with  the  rules  stated  above,  it  seems 
to  be  added  to  verb-stems.  In  these  cases,  however,  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  with  any  certainty  the  base  of 
the  words,  since  in  many  cases  both  verbs  and  nouns  are 
found  as  possible  bases.  An  example  of  this  may  be 
seen  in  the  existence  of  both  the  noun  aiga,  water,  and 
the  verb  aigar,  to  water,  beside  the  derived  word  aigatge. 
It  is  worth  noting,  however,  that  in  cases  of  this  kind, 
a  verb  alone  is  often  found  beside  the  derived  word,  where- 
as a  noun  without  a  corresponding  verb  is  never  found. 
The  question,  then,  is  how  this  nominal  suffix  came  to 
be  attached  regularly  to  verb-stems.  It  seems  possible 
that  some  such  word  as  drechuratge,  derived  from  dre- 
chura,  right,  and  meaning  ''rent"  or  "duty" — that  is,  a 
kind  of  tax  to  be  paid — may,  from  the  nature  of  its  mean- 
ing, gradually  have  acquired  abstract  force,  and  then  was 
supposed,  like  other  abstracts,  to  have  been  formed  on  a 
verb,  particularly  as  the  verb  drechurar,  manage  or 
direct  rightly,  existed.  Thus  a  possible  starting-point 
may  be  fomid  for  the  cases  in  which  abstracts  in  -ATGE 
were  added  to  verb-stems.  At  any  rate,  this  is  the  ordi- 
nary use  of  the  descendants  of  -ATICUM  in  the  Romance 
languages  of  today.  Just  the  reverse  of  this  process 
may  be  seen  in  the  suffix  -ADURA,  which  was  originally 
added  with  abstract  force  to  verb-stems,  but  acquired 
collective  force,  ^  probably  through  some  such  word  as 
folhadura — leafing,  foliage.  Here  the  suffix  was  probabh' 
attached  to  the  verb  folhar — put  forth  leaves,  but  as  the 
noun  folk  existed  also,  it  may  have  been  supposed  to  be 
the  base-word. 

'  For  a  modern  example  of  the  way  in  which  a  word  regularly 
abstract  (though  sometimes  used  concretely)  may  acquire  collective 
force,  cf.  the  Fr.  jeunesse  or  the  Engl,  "youth." 


10  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

The  above  examples  illustrate  how  in  many  cases 
other  parts  of  speech  than  those  which  might  be  expected 
are  sometimes  found  as  bases  for  Provcngal  formations. 
There  are  two  important  ]>rinciple.s  that  serve  to  explain 
these  variations:  false  analogy  and  suffix-change.  There 
are  very  few  of  these  peculiarly  formed  words  that  cannot 
be  explained  either  by  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  prin- 
ciples. Often,  however,  the  assumption  of  the  existence 
of  some  base-word,  either  verb  or  noun,  when  the  evi- 
dence seems  to  make  this  probable,  is  possible.  Thus,  for 
example,  out  of  the  230  Provengal  words  ending  in  -ADOR 
and  denoting  the  agent  of  an  action,  there  are  only  19 — 
a  comparatively  large  number — beside  which  no  verb  can 
be  found.  Now,  in  many  of  these  cases  in  which  a  verb 
is  not  found,  all  the  evidence  tends  to  show  that  it  must 
have  existed,  as  might  easily  be  true  without  the  word's 
being  found  in  any  of  our  dictionaries  or  texts. ^  In 
some  cases  of  this  kind  the  assumed  word  is  found  in 
Modern  Provengal,  though  not  in  the  language  of  our 
period.  Bilhador,  for  example,  meaning  a  pack-servant, 
is  found,  but  no  corresponding  verb  appears  to  exist: 
yet  in  Modern  Provengal  we  find  the  phrase  biha  Vase, 
put  [a  saddle]  on  a  donkey.  In  other  cases,  it  is  the 
existence  in  Old  French  or  some  other  Romance  language 
of  a  verb-form  on  which  the  noun  with  the  suffix  denoting 
the  agent  might  have  been  formed  that  makes  probable 
the  existence  of  such  a  verb  in  Provengal  also.  So  much, 
then,  for  the  assumption  of  Provengal  words  not  found  in 

•  Thus  it  is  not  perhaps  necessary  to  explain  everything  by  the 
principle  which  Darmesteter  expounds :  that  a  suffix,  being  always 
used  with  one  part  of  speech,  came  to  contain  the  idea  of  that  part  of 
speech  in  itself.  According  to  this  principle,  therefore,  if  a  suffix  was 
regularly  added  to  verbs,  it  gradually  acquired  verbal  force,  and  could 
then  be  as  well  added  directly  to  the  nouns  from  which  the  verbs  sprang 
as  to  the  verb  itself.     See  Mots  Nouv.,  71. 


Formation  of  Nouns  11 

the  dictionaries.  Of  the  two  principles  mentioned  above, 
that  of  false  analogy  will  be  treated  first.  This  principle 
may  best  be  described  by  an  example.  Thus  there  is  in 
Provengal  a  word  huzatador,  meaning  a  buzzard-hunter, 
apparently  formed  on  huzat,  buzzard.  Here  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  assume  the  existence  of  a  verb  buzatar,  which  is 
not  found  in  any  form  in  any  of  the  Romance  languages. 
There  is,  however,  a  noun  auzelador,  bird-hunter,  formed 
on  the  verb  auzelar,  meaning  "to  hunt  birds,"  and  not  on 
auzel,  bird,  which  also  existed.  But  auzelador  was  prob- 
ably supposed  to  have  been  formed  on  the  common  form 
auzel  instead  of  on  the  much  less  usual  word,  auzelar,  and 
by  analogy  huzatador  was  formed  on  huzat. 

The  other  principle  explaining  the  addition  of  suffixes 
to  other  parts  of  speech  than  might  be  expected,  that  of 
suffix-change,  will  now  be  treated.  Cohn,i  in  his  work 
on  suffix-change  in  Vulgar  Latin  and  pre-literary  French, 
mentions  some  common  types  of  this  phenomenon  in 
Latin,  and  under  the  general  heading  of  "change  of  a 
less  usual  suffix  for  a  more  usual  one,"  he  enumerates 
several  principles  which  distinguish  this  process.  Thus, 
as  an  example  of  one  of  these  principles,  namely,  that  the 
suffix  substituted  "  depends  on  some  word  or  words 
similar  in  form  to  the  old  one  and  related  in  idea,"  he 
mentions  the  change  of  herhex  to  herhix  on  account  of 
the  existence  of  perdix.  Another  change  of  suffix  that 
must  have  taken  place  in  Vulgar  Latin  is  the  one  affect- 
ing the  Classical  Latin  abstract  suffix  -ITIA.  A  vast 
amount  has  been  written  in  order  to  explain  the  forms 
found  in  Old  French,  namely  -EISE,  -ISE,  -ECE,  and 
-ICE,  but  the  question  cannot   be  regarded  as  settled. 

1  Suffixwandlungen.      For  a  classification  of  the  different  types  of 
suffix-change,  see  the  Table  of  Contents  of  his  book. 


12  WOKD-FORMATION    IN    PROVENgAL 

The  Provencal  forms  are  simpler — only  -EZA,  the  phonetic 
tlevelopment  of  -iTIA,  and  -ESA  (spelled  also  -ESSA,  to 
indicate  more  clearly  the  voiceless  sound  of  "s"),  which 
-ITIA  could  not  have  given  phonetically.  This  form 
could,  however,  be  explained  by  the  change  of  the  suffix 
-ITIA  to  -ICIA,  which  substitution  has  been  suggested 
for  French  also.  The  Proven9al  descendants  of  the  Latin 
pigi-itia,  for  example,  are  pigreza  and  pigresa,  but  also 
pigricia  in  Raynouard,  which  seems  to  represent  a  Latin 
pigricia  unchanged.  Now,  examples  of  suflfix-change 
just  like  this  one  are  found  in  Proven9al  as  well  as  in 
Latin.  An  interesting  example  of  this  may  be  seen  in 
the  Provencal  word  for  spice-seller  or  grocer,  especiador. 
In  Italian,  the  word  for  grocer  is  speziale,  and  there  is 
likewise  a  Provengal  form,  especial,  both  of  which  probably 
come  from  speciale,  the  neuter  form  of  the  adjective 
specialis.  In  the  other  Romance  languages,  however, 
as  in  French  and  Spanish,  and  again  in  Provencal,  forms 
are  found  which  must  come  from  -ARIUS  (epicier, 
especiero,  especier),  this  suffix,  whose  usual  force  was  to 
denote  a  person  carrying  on  some  trade,  being  substituted 
for  -ALIS,  with  its  variant  -ARIS.  This  change  may 
well  have  taken  place  in  Latin:  but  besides  the  change 
to  -ARIUS,  we  find  also  -TOREM,  represented  in  especi- 
ador mentioned  above.  Here  we  see  added  to  a  noun  a 
suffix  that  was  generally  added  to  verb-stems.  -ARIUS 
and  -TOREM,  both  describing  persons,  however,  are 
more  or  less  related  in  meaning,  and  the  change  was 
probably  brought  about  by  some  analogy.  Other  examples 
of  this  kind  of  change  may  be  seen  in  the  substitution  of 
-ANSA  for  -TAT  in  amistansa,  enemistansa,  and  piatansa} 

Another  change  of  this  kind  whiQh  may  have  taken  place  in  Lat. 
would  be  in  *cenatorium  for  cenaculum.  Thus  in  Prov.  beside  the  learned 
cenacle,  we  find  cenador,  which  exists  also  in  Sp.  The  adjective  cena- 
torius  exists  in  Lat. 


Formation  of  Nouns  13 

In  words  of  the  kind  just  mentioned  we  find  examples 
of  a  principle  whose  importance  was  great  in  Provengal, 
namely,  the  addition  of  suffixes  originally  verbal  to  nouns. 
The  participial  endings  -ATUS,  -ITUS,  and  -UTUS^ 
(Provengal  -AT,  -IT,  and  -UT)  are  used  particularly 
commonly  in  this  way  and  may  have  given  a  starting- 
point  for  other  formations  of  the  kind.  Already  in  Latin 
we  find  such  words  as  barbatus,  bearded  (formed  on 
barba,  beard)  later  used  substantively  to  mean  ''the 
bearded  man."  In  Provengal,  also,  we  find  these  endings 
attached  directly  to  nouns  and  forming  nouns  in  such 
words  as  iranjat,  orange-colored  cloth,  and  gabelat, 
goods  on  which  the  gabela,  a  tax,  is  paid.  Both  of  these 
words  were  probably  originally  adjectives  used  with  a 
noun,  but  later  used  alone,  substantively.  Thus  adjec- 
tives in  -AT,  the  verbal  ending,  were  built  on  nouns,  and 
were  exactly  like  the  real  past  participles  of  verbs  when 
used  as  adjectives,  in  both  form  and  meaning.  This 
addition  of  the  participial  ending  to  nouns  was  probably 
due  to  the  vast  number  of  cases  in  which  simple  nouns 
and  verbs  in  -AR  existed  side  by  side:  the  noun  may 
easily  have  been  taken  for  the  base-word.-  Yet  it  is 
in  the  feminine  forms  that  we  must  look  for  the  greatest 
developments  in  meaning.  Thus  the  forms  -ADA,  -IDA, 
and  -UDA,  from  the  verbal  ending  -TA  plus  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  verb,  give,  in  the  first  place,  the  meaning 
of  the  past  participle  used  substantively,  as  in  espozada,^ 
bride,  and  then  contract  abstract  force,  as  in  apelada, 
calling,    departida,    departure,     and    atenduda,     waiting. 

1  For  the  same  process  in  Engl,  see  Murray,  under  the  suffix  -ED(-), 
where  the  function  of  the  suffix  is  stated  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
Lat.  -TUS.     Examples  are  "booted,"  "wooded,"  etc. 

-  Or  possibly  to  Darmesteter's  principle,  stated  in  the  note  on  p.  10. 

3  The  masculine  forms  also  have  this  first  meaning,  as  in  donat, 
lay  brother;    hastit,  building,  and  contengut,  contents. 


14  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

But  when  attached  directly  to  nouns,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  the  mascuHne  forms  given  above,  the  feminine  forms 
have  their  widest  extension  of  meaning,  and  again  it  was 
the  ending  for  the  first  conjugation,  namely,  -ADA,  that 
was  used  in  all  cases.  Its  numerous  meanings,  as,  some- 
thing contained  by  the  simple  noun,  then  as  much  as  it 
could  contain  (brasada),  and  as  far  as  it  could  reach  in 
space  (balestrada) ,  or  in  time  {inatinada),  a  tax  to  pay 
[bladada),  and  a  blow  (coltelhada) ,  are  all  described  under 
the  suffix  -ADA.i 

Another  principle  of  word-formation  found  in  Pro- 
vencal, one  which  can  be  traced  back  at  least  as  far  as 
Vulgar  Latin,  is  that  of  the  addition  of  a  suffix  which 
gives  no  change  of  meaning  to  the  simple  word.  This 
is  especially  true  of  diminutive  suffixes,  and  is  men- 
tioned concerning  them  by  Bonnet  in  his  work  on  the 
Latin  of  Gregory  of  Tours.^  By  the  addition  of  these 
suffixes,  objects  in  common  use  were  designated,  no  dimin- 
utive force  often  being  intended,  and  it  is  only  in  the 
form  with  the  suffix  that  these  words  appear  in  the 
Romance  languages.  But  besides  the  words  which  are 
found  only  with  the  suffix  attached,  Provengal  has  other 
examples  showing  forms  both  with  and  without  the  suffix 
existing  side  by  side  with  no  difference  in  meaning.  This 
simultaneous  existence  of  two  forms  without  difference 
of  meaning  appears  to  be  due  to  a  continuation  into 
Provengal  of  the  Latin  process  rather  than  to  the  addi- 
tion of  the  suffix  in  Latin,  in  which  case  the  simple  word 
would  probably  have  disappeared,  as  in  the  cases  men- 
tioned above.  Examples  of  these  pairs  of  words  identical 
in  meaning  found  in  Provengal  may  be  seen  in  ram  and 
ramel,  and  laur  and  laurel,  whereas  in  Modern  French  it 

'See  p.  30.  .      2  P.  459. 


Formation  of  Nouns  15 

is  only  the  derived  words  rameau  and  laurelle  that  are  in 
use.  The  presence  of  the  suffix  in  Modern  French  appears 
to  indicate  a  repetition  of  the  process  that  Provengal  was 
undergoing  at  the  period  here  studied — the  addition  of  a 
suffix  bringing  no  change  of  meaning,  and  the  later  dis- 
appearance of  one  of  tne  words.  In  Modern  French  it  is 
the  simple  word  that  has  disappeared,  as  shown  above;  in 
Modern  Provengal  and  in  Spanish  it  is  the  simple  word 
that  is  found  today,  as  in  ramo.  It  seems,  therefore,  that 
two  words  with  no  difference  in  meaning  between  them 
could  not  both  persist  long.  When  the  suffix  was  added 
as  early  as  in  Latin  times,  hardly  a  trace  of  the  simple 
word  is  to  be  found  in  Romance.  For  example,  the  word 
for  "lamb"  in  the  different  languages  is  agneau,  anhel,  and 
agnello,  but  no  trace  of  agnus  is  found,  except  in  the  Italian 
poetic  form  agno. 

The  addition  of  the  suffix  that  brings  no  change  to 
the  simple  word  may  be  seen  in  other  examples  besides 
diminutives.  This  principle,  which  has  been  called  the 
addition  of  a  suffix  for  the  greater  length  it  gives  a  word, 
is  verj'  conmion  in  the  formation  of  adjectives,^  and  in 
the  case  of  nouns  is  found  as  one  of  the  uses  of  the  suffix 
-lER.-  In  dealing  with  the  suffix  -ARIUS,  the  source 
of  -lER,  Olcott^  mentions  the  Enghsh  word  "fruiterer" 
as  an  illustration  of  the  same  principle.  The  second 
-er  does,  indeed,  appear  to  be  an  example  of  the  "un- 
meaning extension"  of  a  word.  Thus  the  word  "fruiter" 
(compare  the  French  fruitier  and  the  Provencal  fruchier) , 
formed  on  a  noun,  was  extended  by  analogy  with  such 
words    as   "caterer"   and    "upholsterer,"    m  which   the 

1  For  its  use  in  these  formations,  see  p.  270. 

2  As  in  broc  and  broquier,  companh  and  companhier.     See  p.  225, 
below. 

3  P.  139,  n.  4. 


16  AVORD-FORMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 

suffix  was  added  to  verbs  already  ending  in  -er,  hut  had 
the  appearance  of  being  a  suffix  -ERER.^  Exactly 
the  same  extension  takes  place  in  some  Provencal  words, 
such  as  bandairier  and  carrairier.  The  same  suffix 
here  appears  under  two  forms,  -AIR  and  -lER,  -AIR 
representing  its  phonetic  development,  which  it  always 
has  when  not  bearing  the  accent,  and  -lER  the  usual 
but  non-phonetic  development,  which  -ARIUS  underwent 
when  clearly  felt  as  an  individual  suffix,  and  probabh' 
due  to  outside  influences.-  Whether  -AIRIER  was 
ever  added  as  one  suffix  or  always  as  two  distinct  ones  is 
a  matter  concerning  double  suffixes. 

This  last  question,  the  combination  of  two  suffixes 
in  Provencal,  closely  connected  as  it  is  with  the  principle 
of  the  forceless  suffix,  is  another  whose  origin  must  be 
sought  in  Vulgar  Latin.  As  an  example  of  the  way  that 
the  two  suffixes  were  originally  added,  Thomas  cites  the 
Classical  Latin  natalicius,^  and  as  examples  of  two  suffixes 
combined  and  joined  as  one  to  the  simple  word,  he  men- 
tions (]entilicius  and  sigillaricius,  the  latter  formed  directly, 
as    its   meaning    shows,    on   sigillum.     Words    like    this 

■  III  connection  with  forms  like  this,  Murray  gives  several  examples, 
but  "fruiterer"  is  the  only  real  example  of  the  "unmeaning  extension." 
Here  is  his  statement  as  it  appears:  "In  several  instances  -ER  has 
the  appearance  of  being  an  unmeaning  extension  of  earlier  words  denot- 
ing trades  or  offices.  Most  of  these  words  are  of  foreign  origin,  as 
'caterer,'  'fruiterer,'  and  'poulterer.'  An  analogous  case  in  a  native 
word  is  'upholsterer.'  The  real  formation  of  these  words  is  obscure: 
some  are  probably  formed  from  verbs,  while  in  other  cases  formations  on 
words  in  -ERY  may  be  conjectured."  This  -ERY,  however,  is  nothing 
but  the  Fr.  suffix  -ERIE  (Prov.  -ARIA)  which  is,  in  itself,  a  compound 
of  -ARIUS  plus  the  suffix  -lA.  According  to  this  idea,  therefore,  we 
should  here  have  a  triple  suffix,  which  it  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  assume. 

2  Thomas  suggests  as  responsible  for  the  change  of  -ARIUS  into 
-ERIUS  the  suffix  found  in  Gothic  as  -AREIS.     See  Nouv.  Ess.,  123. 

'  For  a  fuller  description  of  these  forms,  see  below,  double  suffixes, 
p.  389,  or  Nouv.  Ess.,  62. 


Formation  of  Nouns  17 

served  as  a  starting-point  for  the  compound  suffixes^ 
-ALICIUS  and  -ARICIUS,  found  in  many  words  in 
French  and  in  some  Provengal  examples.^  This  welding 
together  of  two  originally  distinct  suffixes  may  be  further 
illustrated  by  one  of  the  commonest  of  all  Romance 
suffixes,  the  one  which  is  found  in  Provencal  as  -ARIA, 
in  French  as  -ERIE,  and  in  Spanish  and  Italian  as  -ERIA. 
This  is  formed  of  the  abstract  suffix  -lA  added  to  the 
agent -suffix  -ARIUS,  -and  was  used  at  first  to  designate  a 
place  in  which  the  object  denoted  by  the  simple  noun  could 
be  found  in  abundance,  although  later  it  acquired  other 
new  meanings.  Here,  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the 
two  parts  of  the  new  suffix  were  added  separatelj^  or 
even  that  the  word  with  the  single  suffix  necessarih- 
ever  existed.  All  the  Romance  languages  give  evidence 
against  this  view,  as  they  have  words  in  -ARIA  or  its 
other  forms  beside  which  no  word  with  the  single  suffix  is 
found  or  probably  ever  existed.  We  therefore  have  here  a 
single  suffix  attached  to  a  simple  noun,  whatever  this  single 
suffix  may  have  come  from.  This  is  the  theory  for  the 
compound  suffixes^  in  Provengal,  in  which  language,  if  we 
exclude  diminutives,  formations  of  this  type  are  especially 
common.  -ARIUS  alone  is  found  as  the  first  part  of  the 
compound  forms  in  a  number  of  suffixes,  as  in  -AIRADA, 
-AIRAL,  -AIRET,  -AIRIER,  -AIROL,  and  -AIRON,  in 
all  of  which  -ARIUS  has  its  phonetic  development,  and 
there  are  numerous  other  examples  of  compound  suffixes. 
The  individual  suffixes  forming  nouns  will  now  be 
studied  in  alphabetic  order. 

1  That  is,  two  originallj'  distinct  suffixes  added  as  one  suffix  to  the 
simple  word. 

2  This  does  not,  however,  preclude  the  formation  of  words  by  two 
suffixes  added  separately.  There  are  many  examples  of  words  of  this 
kind.     See   p.   381. 

3  For  full  treatment,  see  p.  389. 


18  Word-Formation  in  Proven ^al 

-AC,  -EC,  -ic,  -oc,  -uc 

The  Provengal  endings  -AC,  -EC,  -IC,  -OC,  and  -UC 
will  be  treated  together  here  as  a  group  of  suffixes  similar 
in  form  and  identical  in  meaning^  and  development. 
As  a  source  for  the  forms  found  in  the  Romance  languages, 
it  seems  necessary  to  assume  the  suffixes  -ACCUS, 
-ECCUS,  -ICCUS,  -OCCUS,  and  -UCCUS— that  is, 
suffixes  with  a  double  c,  instead  of  the  forms  with  a  single 
c  found  in  Latin.-  In  Provengal,  the  suffixes  are  of 
relatively  little  importance,  the  endings  being  found  in 
very  few  words  as  certain  suffixes,  and  in  the  masculine 
forms,  the  endings  -AC,  -EC,  -IC,  etc.,  do  not  necessitate 
the  hypothesis  of  original  suffixes  with  a  double  c.  It  is 
rather  the  feminine  forms  -ACHA,  -ECHA,  etc.,  but 
more  especially  the  words  found  in  the  other  Romance 
languages,  that  make  any  such  supposition  necessary.' 
Just  how  this  change  from  a  single  to  a  double  c  took 
place  is  not  thoroughly  clear.  Meyer-Ltibke  claims  that 
the  suffix  -ICCUS,  which  he  admits  as  existing  in  the 
Iberian  peninsula  and  in  Roumania,  was  not  Latin, 
although  he  says  that  both  -ICUS  and  -ICCUS  are  found 
as  early  as  the  Roman  period.^  It  would  appear  from 
this,  rather  that  the  suffixes  found  all  represented  the 
Latin  -ICUS,  and  that  the  forms  with  the  double  c 
showed  simply  a  doubling  of  the  consonant,  which  occurred 
later,  also,  for  the  suffixes  -ACUS,  -ECUS,  -OCUS,  and 
-UCUS,  and  produced  the  forms  found  in  the  Romance 
languages.     If  -AC,  -EC,  -ACHA,  -ECHA,  etc.,  do  really 

1  Except  some  of  the  words  in  -EC. 

2  These  will  not  do  phonetically,  neither  will  the  forms  -ACEUS, 
etc.,  treated  below. 

3  For  lists  of  words,  see  Horning  in  Zeilschrifi,  XX,  335. 
*  II,  590. 


Formation  of  Nouns  19 

represent,  then,  the  suffixes  -ACCUS,  -ECCUS,  etc., 
the  question  arises  of  how  and  why  the  doubhng  of  the 
consonant  took  place.  Now  the  suffixes  -AC,  -EC,  etc., 
seem  generally  to  be  diminutive  in  force,  sometimes  en- 
dearing, sometimes  depreciative;  and  Horning,  who  has 
treated  the  question,^  finds  the  reason  for  the  doubling 
of  the  consonant  in  the  idea  that  the  suffixes  pronounced 
with  great  energy  or  emotion  caused  an  involuntary 
strengthening,  and  therefore  doubling,  of  the  consonant, 
a  process  to  be  seen  today  in  French  pronunciation.^ 
Another  suggestion  that  he  makes  also  is  that  -ICCA 
and  -UCCA  may  represent  -ICULA,  -UCULA,  the 
doubling  of  the  c  taking  place  as  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  the  last  syllables,  a  process  which  he  finds  occurring 
in  some  short  forms  of  Greek  endearing  diminutives, 
which  he  gives.  This  last  hypothesis  would  do  very 
well  were  it  possible  to  find  any  trace  of  -ICULUM  or 
-UCULUM's  ever  having  been  in  any  of  the  words.which 
have  in  Provengal  -IC  or  -UC,  but  as  they  seem  not  to 
have  had  this  suffix  in  Latin,  and  as  no  form  which  could 
represent  a  development  of  it^  exists  in  the  words  which 
have  -IC  and  -UC,  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  adopt  the 
first  and  simpler  hypothesis. 

-AC,  -EC,  -IC,  -OC,  -UC  will  be  treated  again  under 
adjective  formations.  As  nouns  with  the  suffix  -AC,  we 
find: 

creac,  sturgeon:  The  word  is  also  written  creat,  -AC 
probably  bemg  confused  with  -AT<  ATTUS,  the  suffix 
used  to  designate  the  young  of  animals.  This  latter 
suffix  was  also  added  to  the  full  form  of  the  word,  giving 

1  Zeitschrift,  XX,  335. 

^  Ibid.,  351.  In  Mod.  Fr.,  however,  it  is  the  initial  consonant  that  is 
strengthened.  The  example  cited  by  Horning  (350,  n.  6)  is  the  p  of 
polisson. 

=  Such  as  -ILH  or  -OLH, 


20  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

us  th(^  word  creagat,  a  young  sturgeon.^  Mistral  derives 
a'eac  from  a  late  Latin  creams. 

hiizac,  buzzard:  Like  creac,  it  is  found  also  with  the 
form  in  -at,  buzat.  -AC  and  -AT,  then,  both  seem  to 
denote  the  young  of  animals.  The  French  word  for 
"buzzard"  is  huse<  butia,^  which  probably  gave  also  some 
Provencal  word  to  which  the  suffix  -AC  was  added,  the 
derived  buzac  originally  meaning  a  young  buzzard,  but 
later  losing  its  diminutive  force.     See  also  -OC. 

pataCjj  a  coin:  This  also  is  found  with  -AT  in  the  form 
patat,  and  is  found  in  Du  Cange  as  pata,  patagus,  pataciis, 
patarus,  and  patatius. 

In  the  feminine,  the  suffix  -AGCA  should  give  -ACHA 
in  Provengal,  as  indeed  it  does  in  most  words.  One 
word,  however,  has  -ACCA.     This  is 

boacca,  a  female  ox,  as  given  by  Raynouard,  and  not 
given  in  Levy.  The  word  is  peculiar  as  showing  the 
double  c  instead  of  ch  or  c.^ 

J  -AT  was  probably  added  after  -AC  had  lost  its  original  diminutive 
force.     See  buzac,  in  the  same  list. 

=  For  the  Classic  Lat.  buteo.  Buse  (for  buise)  is  irregular,  and  is 
probably  due  to  the  influence  of  btisard.  For  buteo,  see  Diez,  536; 
Korting,  No.  1,667;  and  Meyer-Ltibke,  Etym.  Worterb.,  No.  1,423,  with 
references  there  given. 

3  The  word  is  probably,  however,  an  artificial  formation,  made  to 
resemble  vaca,  if  we  may  judge  by  Raynouard's  example:  "vaca  es 
dita  quays  boacca"  (II,  244).  The  meaning  given  by  Raynouard  seems 
absurd  enough,  but  yet  it  is  a  feminine  formed  on  bou,  ox,  and  absurdity 
seems  intended,  judging  from  the  context. 


t  Other  words  ending  in  -AC,  but  not  representing  any  suffix,  are : 
andrac,  carbuncle  (from  the  Gr.  &vdpa^,  coal) ;  eisac,  sluice  (possibly 
a  post-verbal  formation  on  eisegar,  dry  up,  its  form  being  due  to  a  con- 
fusion with  agar,  to  water,  and  eisec,  equal  division,  probably  a  post- 
verbal  from  eisegar  [<exaequaref],  divide  equally);  and  pelac,  sea, 
probably  from  the  Lat.  pelagus,  with  the  accent-shifting  often  seen  in 
learned  proparoxytones.  An  obscure  word  is  mezac,  miller's  boy  (?), 
but  even  its  form  is  uncertain. 


Formation  of  Nouns  21 

fornacha,  oven-tax:  Here  the  word  has  one  of  the 
principal  uses  of  -ATGE<-ATICUM.  There  is  also 
a  {onnfornatja,  oven-tax,  as  well  as  the  regular  fornatge<C 
fornaticum,  given  by  Raynouard.  Fornatja  seems  to 
be  derived  from  the  feminine  fornatica,  feminine  forms 
being  represented  in  one  or  two  other  Provengal  words 
also.  Fornacha  seems  to  show  a  confusion  between  the 
suffixes  -ACCA  and  -ATICA,  having  taken  the  meaning 
of  fornatja.  Fornacha  also  means  a  small  oven — the 
regular  diminutive  force  which  -ACCA  should  give.  Du 
Cange  gives  a  word,  for7iacula ,  which  would  suit  Homing's 
second  hypothesis,  except  that  there  he  is  dealing  only 
with  -ICULUM  and  -UCULUM.     Fornalha  is  not  found. 

garnacha,  a  kind  of  overdress  or  toga:  The  stem  appears 
to  be  garnir,  from  the  Germanic  *warnjan,^  plus  the  suffix 
-ACCA  (compare  the  Italian  guarnacca). 

orhacha,^  blind  person:  From  orb,  blind. 

-EC  appears  in  several  words  in  Provencal,  but  its 
use  is  totally  different  from  that  of  the  other  suffixes  of 
the  group.  The  only  word  in  which  the  suffix  -ECCUS 
seems  at  all  sure  is  cavec,  sparrow-owl,  the  meaning  given 
by  Mistral  for  the  Modern  Provengal  caveco,  "male  de 
la  cheveche."  As  Horning  points  out,-  the  word  cannot 
be  connected  with  caput,  but  must  belong  to  the  same  stem 

1  Korting,   No.   10,357.      Here  the  suffix  seems  to  be  added  to  a 
verb-stem. 

^Zeitschrift,   XX,   .340. 


t  Other  words  ending  in  -ACH(A)  are: 

carach,  face  i<caraclum?).  See  Levy,  I,  209,  for  a  discussion  of 
the  word. 

escaravach,  scarab  (■C*scarafaius  for  scarahaeus?).  See  Korting, 
Xo.  8,424. 

garach,  fallow  land  {<vervactum.) . 

gavach,  wen,  excrescence  (^cavaticus?). 

orbacha  i<operacciaf).     See  Zeitschrift,  XXIV,  43. 

A  word  in  -ACA  is  pozaraca,  but  it  is  probablj-  a  compound  word. 


22  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

tluit  producoil  the  French  chouette.  But  wliy  the  mascu- 
line form  should  take  the  suffix  -ECCUS  and  the  feminine 
-ISCA  (cavesca)  is  not  clear.^ 

The  other  words  in  -EC,  -ECHA,  have  no  diminutive 
force,  but  are,  instead,  abstracts.  Eisec,  equal  division 
of  cattle,  does  not  represent  a  suffix  at  all,  but  is  a  verbal 
substantive  from  eisegar,  to  divide  cattle  equally.  But 
there  are  other  words — a  noun  and  an  adjective — which 
add  -EC  with  abstract  force.     Thus 

do7nec,  lordship,  rule  do7n,  lord 

Inaccf  weariness  las,  weary 

and  with  the  feminine  -ECHA,  we  find 

escazecha,  property,  fortune  escazer,  fall  due 

-IC  is  found  in  some  words,  but  in  very  few  certain 

Provencal  formations: 

causic,  footstep  causa,  shoe 

garn'c,^  ft  oakwood  (Fr.  jarris) 

These  seem  to  be  the  only  Provencal  formations  that 
are  at  all  likely.     The  stem  of  garric  is  not  certain. 

-OC  is  found  only  in  huzoc,  buzzard,  in  which  it  seems 
to  represent  the  diminutive  suffix  -OCCUS,  and  in  paroc. 
For  the  source  of  buzoc,  see  buzac,  under  -AC.^ 

Paroc  should  possibly  be  written  parec.  For  parec, 
see  note  f. 

'  It  seems  barely  possible  that  -EC  in  cavec  should  itself  represent 
-ISCUS. 

«  Korting,  No.  4,159,  and  Diez,  593.         '  Pp.  19  f. 


t  There  is  also  a  word  parec  of  obscure  origin  and  seeming  to  mean 
a  8ock. 

tt  Other  words  with  the  ending  -IC,  but  uncertain  in  meaning  as 
well  as  of  obscure  origin,  are:  bestic,  chairic,  denzic  (or  genzic),  and  estric, 
all  given  in  Levy.  Meric  shows  a  substitution  of  -IC  for  -IT.  Erelic, 
heretic  (,<haereticus) ,  and  levestic,  lovage  (<levisticum)  are  Lat., 
which  appears  to  be  also  the  case  with  eboric,  danewort  {<*ebulicus, 
derived  from  ebulumf).  Piloric,  pillory  (Fr.  pilori),  is  of  obscure 
origin  (see  Korting,  No.  8,931).  The  usual  Prov.  form  is  espitlori. 
Pilori  may  be  connected  with  pilar,  pillar. 


Formation  of  Nouns  23 

-OCHA  seems  not  to  exist  as  a  suffix.^ 

-UC  is  found  only  in  one  word  of  Latin  origin,  festuc, 

straw,  and  in  several  rather  obscure  words: 

bauduc,'^  trouble,  dispute;  mixture  baut{?),  bold,  gay 
cantezuc,  bad  song  can(t),  song 

devertuc,  ulcer,  sore 
•palhuc,]  chopped  straw  palha,  straw 

Cantezuc  is  peculiar  in  having  an  ez  inserted  instead 
of  having  the  nc  joined  to  the  simple  word.  How  it 
crept  into  the  word  is  not  at  all  clear,  but  it  is  possible 
that  it  came  about  in  this  fashion :  several  words  in 
Provencal  ended  in  -ZEL(A)  or  -CEL(A),  coming  from 
the  Latin  diminutive  suffix  -CELLUS.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, never  to  have  been  added  as  a  suffix  in  Provengal, 
the  words  in  which  it  is  found  being  common  to  nearly  all 
of  the  Romance  languages,  and  showing  in  other  ways 
their  Latin  origin.  Such  words  are:  auzel,  donzel,  nioncel, 
parcela,  piuz(c)ela.  Now  if  we  may  assume  a  *canticellus, 
like  avicellus  and  the  other  sources  for  our  Provengal  words, 
it  would  become  cantezel,  and  then  canzel.  In  cantezel,  -EL, 
due  to  the  extreme  commonness  of  this  suffix,  may  have 
come  to  be  regarded  as  the  suffix  instead  of  -ZEL.  Then 
to  the  stem  deprived  of  the  supposed  suffix  another  di- 
minutive but  also  depreciative  suffix  was  probably  added. 

Devertuc,  ulcer,  is  a  difficult  word  to  explain.  The 
only  apparent  source  is  diverticulum,  in  which  word 
-UCLUM  might  have  been  substituted  for  -ICLUM,  giving 
divertuclum.  But  this  etymology  is  unsatisfactorj^,  for  aside 
from  phonetic  difficulties,  diverticulum  means  a  bj'-road, 
which  has  no  obvious  connection  in  meaning  with  devertuc. 

1  Galopcha  is  found,  but  is  probably  from  galopia. 

2  See  Rom.  Forsch.,  XXII,  986. 


t  Another  word  in  -UC  is  pesuc,  which  appears  to  be  a  postverbal 
formation. 


24  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

-ADA,    -IDA,    -UDA 

The  next  suffixes  to  be  treated  form  in  Provencal 
another  group ADA,  -IDA,  and  -UDA.  This  group- 
formation  is  the  regular  process  in  all  verbal  suffixes^ 
in  Provengal,  where  the  a  and  i  of  suffixes  come  from  the 
stem-vowel  of  the  conjugation  to  which  they  are  attached. - 
Thus,  in  this  group,  it  is  only  -DA  which  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  form — the  suffix  -TA,  the  feminine  of  -TUS. 
The  suffix  -TUS  was  also  used,  giving  in  Provengal  the 
forms  -AT,  -IT,  and  -UT,  but  most  of  the  words  with 
these  endings  are  easily  felt  to  be  only  verbal  adjectives 
or  past  participles  used  substantively,  and  the  missing 
noun  can  easily  be  supplied.^  With  the  forms  -ADA, 
-IDA,  and  -UDA  from  -TA,  the  process  had  gone  a  step 
farther  than  was  usual  with  the  masculine  form,'*  and  had 
come  to  be  used  almost  exclusively  with  abstract  force. ^ 

'  -TA,  from  which  -ADA,  etc.,  is  derived,  is  the  feminine  form  of 
the  Lat.  past  participle. 

-  a  and  i  are  regular  connecting  vowels;  u  is  foimd  in  the  past 
participles  of  a  whole  conjugation  in  Prov.,  and  is  due  to  some  Lat. 
forms  that  had  it  originally  and  to  its  analogical  extension  to  past  par- 
ticiples in  -ITUM.  Thus  -UDA  came  about.  Where  a  suffix  was 
unconnected  with  participles,  but  was  merely  added  to  verb-stems, 
the  connecting  vowels  in  Prov.  were  a,  e,  and  i.  This  fact  is  illus- 
trated under  the  verbal  suffixes  -ADOR,  -ADURA,  -AMEN,  -AZON,  etc. 

'See  pp.  149-51. 

*  Masculine  abstracts  are  seen  in  such  rare  words  us  blasmat,  ardit, 
and  grevif. 

=  See  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  575;  Die.  Gen.,  introduction,  sees.  45  and 
119,  such  clear  abstracts  as  duree  being  referred  to  these  sections;  also 
Murray  for  such  words  as  "delivery"  and  "recovery,"  which  are  appar- 
ently derived  from  the  feminine  past  participle  of  the  Fr.  words  from 
which  the  Engl,  words  developed.  The  preponderance  of  feminine 
forms  may  be  partly  due  to  the  similarity  of  the  forms  of  the  neuter 
plural,  and  the  preponderance  of  words  with  abstract  force  may  be 
due  to  analogy  with  other  verbal  suffixes,  which  almost  always  have 
this  force. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


25 


The  great  popularity  of  the  feminine  form  is  attested  by 
its  widespread  use  as  a  suffix  to  be  attached  also  to  nouns/ 
in  which  formations  new  meanings  are  contracted.  The 
formations  on  verbs  will,  however,  be  given  first  under 
the  respective  headings  -ADA,  -IDA,  and  -UDA.  Under 
-ADA  will  be  given  the  formations  on  verbs  in  -ar; 
under  -IDA,  the  ones  on  verbs  in  -ir;  and  under  -UDA, 
those  made  on  verbs  in  -er  or  -re. 
-ADA  is  found  in : 


aigada,  flood 

albergada,  lodging 

albirada,  aim 

alenada,  respiration 

apelada,  naming 

armada,  army 

arribada,  landing,  arrival 

asemblada,  assembly 

atropelada,  union 

avocada,-  female  lawyer 

azirada,  impetuosity 

bailada,  delivery 

balada,  ballad 

brocada,  sarcasm,  taunt 

cairada,  hewn  stone 

caminada,  road 

carbonado,  grill,  broil 

casada,  hunt 

colcada,  going  to  bed;    resting- 
place 

cridada,  clamor,  uproar 

crozada,  crusade 

dalhada,  space  that  can  be  cut 
with  scythe 


aigar,  water 

albergar,  lodge 

albirar,  imagine 

alenar,  breathe 

apelar,  call,  name 

armar,  arm 

arribar,  land 

asemblar,  assemble 

atropelar,  crowd  together 

avocar,  invoke 

azirar,  irritate 

bailar,  deliver 

balar,  dance 

brocar,  prick 

cairar,  square  off 

caminar,  journey 

carbonar,  char,  turn  to  ashes 

casar,  hunt 

colcar,  lie 

cridar,  cry 

crozar  (se),  take  the  cross 

dalhar,  mow,  reap 


>  See  p.  30. 

2  This  word,  though  placed  here  because  it  is  formed  on  a  verb,  is 
different  from  most  of  the  others.  It  is  merely  the  feminine  form  of 
avocat  (from  avocar),  a  past  participle  used  as  a  noun.  If,  as  seems  prob- 
able, the  -ADA  in  ail  the  words  goes  back  originally  to  the  feminine 
past  participle,  words  of  this  kind  clearly  belong  here. 


26 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


dernorada,  delay 

destinada,  destiny 

devalada,  descent,  slope 

devizada,  division 

dinada,  dinner' 

durada,  duration 

eisartada,  arable  bit  of  land 

eniboscada,  ambuscade 

enconlrada,  meeting 

endestinada,  destiny 

errada,  error 

esluciada,  flash 

espozada,-  bride 

estancada,  halt 

estivada,^  lease  of  live-stock  for 

summer 
fdada,^  bed,  laj^er 
flagelada,*  flail  of  war  (kind  of 

weapon) 
fiorada,  a  coin 
forcada,  fork  of  road 
fretada,  sound  thrashing 
fumada,  smoke 
gelada,  ice 

girada,  revolution;  a  kind  of  cake 
gitada,^  coping,  drip 
gostada,  luncheon 
intrada,^  entry 


demorar,  delay 
destinnr,  destine 
devalar,  descend 
devizar,  divide 
dinar,  dine 
durar,  last 
eisartar,  clear  (land) 
etnboscar,  ambush 
enconlrar,  meet 
endestinar,  destine 
error,  err 
esluchar,  flash 
espozar,  marry 
estancar,  stop,  stanch 
eslivar,  harvest 

filar,  spin,  let  out 
flagelar,  thrash 

florar,  give  splendor 

forcar,  fork 

fretar,  strike,  rub 

fumar,  smoke 

gelar,  freeze 

girar,  turn 

gitar,  throw 

gostar,  have  light  meal 

intrar,  enter 


'  Dinada  and  estivada  show  meanings  which  -ADA  was  much  more 
likely  to  give  when  attached  to  nouns.  Dinada,  nevertheless,  was  formed 
on  dinar.  Estivada  may  have  been  formed  on  estiu,  summer  (though 
estivar  exists) ,  and  certainly  shows  the  influence  of  the  noun. 

'  Espozada  is  admitted  to  the  list  for  the  same  reason  as  avocada. 
It  is  simply  a  past  participle  in  the  feminine  form  used  as  a  noun. 

'  Filada  maj-  be  formed  on  the  noun  fila,  row.  Jurada,  also,  has 
a  meaning  similar  to  some  of  those  found  among  the  formations  on  nouns, 
and  might  be  formed  on  jur,  oath,  although  jurar  seems  its  probable  source. 

*  A  very  peculiar  meaning  unless  the  word  is  formed  on  the  noun 
flagel,  flail,  which  would  be  an  example  of  the  forceless  use  of  the  suffix. 

'  Intrada  seems  to  be  the  usual  spelling,  though  phonetically  we 
might  expect  e  instead  of  i.  The  change  of  e  to  i  in  the  initial  syllable 
is  exceedingly  common,  however.  See  Grandgent,  art.  44,  sec.  3.  All 
words  derived  from  intrar  and  gitar  (or  entrar  and  getar)  will  therefore 
be  spelled  with  i. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


27 


jonc{h)ada,  double  handful  joncar,  heap  up,  strew 

jurada,^  ward  for  choosing  alder-    jurar,  swear 
man 


laisada,^  widow 

levada,  raising,  as  of  taxes 

liada,  a  measure 

Hurada,  delivery 

martelada,  hammering 

mesclada,  combat,  melee 

mezurada,  a  measure 

molinada,  grinding;  ground  corn 

montada,  mounting;  hill 

murada,  wall 

pa /iflda,' theft;  stolen  object 

pasada,  passage 

pecada,  sin,  fault 

pensada,  thought 

pescada,  right  of  fishing 

phintada,  planting 

plombada,  sounding-lead;  leaded 

club;  leaden  ball 
pojada,  ascent 

randonada,  rapidity,  impetuosity 
recobrada,  recovery 
renomnada,*  renowTi 
retornada,  return 
secada,  drjmess 
soldada,  pay,  salary 
sopada,  supper 
talhada,  cutting 
tirada,  reach,  cast 
tornada,  refrain 
trencada,  cutting,  crossing 
trepelhada,^  another  form  of   tro- 

pelhada  1 
tropelhada,^  coming  together,  union 


laisar,  leave 
levar,  raise 
liar,  bind 
liurar,  deliver 
martelar,  hammer 
mesclar,  mix 
mezurar,  measure 
moUnar,  grind 
moniar,  mount 
murar,  wall  up 
panar,  steal 
pasar,  pass 
pecar,  sin 
pensar,  think 
pescar,  fish 
plantar,  plant 
plombar,  fill  with  lead 

pojar,  ascend 
randonar,  run  swiftly 
recobrar,  recover 
renomnar,  name  again 
retornar,  return 
secar,  dry 
soldar,  pay 
sopar,  sup 
talhar,  cut 
tirar,  draw,  pull 
tornar,  turn 
trencar,  cut 


tropelhar  ( ?) 


'Cf.  n.  3,  p.  26. 

-  Same  kind  of  formation  as  avocada  and  espozada. 

3  For  panada  from  pan,  see  p.  33. 

*  Found   also   as   renomada,   which    probably   shows   Fr.   influence 
(renom  and  renommee). 

6  These  two  words  are  given  in  Appel's   Vocabulary.     They  both 
occur,  however,  only  in  a  variant  reading. 


28 


\\'()KI)-F()RMAT10N    IN    PrOVEN(\\L 


iustada,  shook 
ventada,  siuUlcii  wind 
virada,  turning 
volada,  flight 

-IDA  is  found  in: 

aizida,  enjoyment 

hastida,  fortified  place,  city 

cobeida,-  covetousness 

colhida,  harvest 

complida,  comphne' 

consentida,  consent 

definida,  assignment,  appointment 

demezida,  lot,  share 

departida,  departure 

dcsconfida,  defeat 

dormida,  sleep 

eisida,  issue,  exit 

envaida,  attack,  invasion 

esbrugida,  making  notorious 

escarnida,  insult,  outrage 

escofida,  overthrow,  defeat, 

escorrida,  expedition 

escremida,  covering  ?* 

esjauzida,  rejoicing 

establida,  dwelling 

esiampida,  noise,  resounding 

Jalhida,  fault,  failing 

fenida,  end,  conclusion 

fugida,  removal,  deviation 

(janchida,  deception 

gandida,  guaranty 

garenlida,  protection 


tustar,  shock 
venlar,  blow 
virar,  turn 
volar,  fly 


aizir,^  welcome 
baslir,  buikl 

collar,  gather 
complir,  fulfil,  accomplish 
consenlir,  consent 
definir,  determine,  describe 
demezir,  divide 
departir,  de])art 
desconfir,  discomfit 
dormir,  sleep 
eisir,  go  out 
envair,  invade,  attack 
esbrugir,  make  known 
escarnir,  insult,  mock  at 
bscofir,  kill,  murder 
escorre{se),  run,  flow 
escremir,  fight,  defend 
esjauzir,  rejoice 
esiablir,  establish 
estampir,  n>sound 
falhir,  fail 
fenir,  finish 
fugir,  fly 
ganchir,  prevent 
gandir,  guarantee 
garerttir,  guarantee 


1  Thomas  {Essais,  233-34)  gives  examples  of  this  verb. 

-  Coheir  is  not  found,  but  probably  existed,  being  formed  on  cohe, 
covetous,  a  usual  kind  of  formation. 

'  The  complines  (originally  compline)  was  the  last  service  of  com- 
mon prayer  for  the  day.  Its  connection  with  th('  past  participle  of 
complir  is  therefore  clear. 

*  This  seems  a  peculiar  meaning  to  be  derived  from  the  verb  escremir, 
hut  the  original  meaning  of  the  verb  seems  to  have  been  "to  defend" 
or  protect,  hence  cover,  whereas  the  meaning  "to  fight"  also  comes  from 
the  idea  of  "to  defend."  For  source,  see  Kdrting,  No.  8,788.  See  also 
Horn.  Forsch.,  XXII,  214. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


29 


garida,  refuge;  help,  saving 
grazida,  thanks 
mentida,  he 
partida,  departure 
retentida,  resounding 
semonida,  admonition 
sortida,'\  issue 

-UDA  is  found  in: 

attnduda,  waiting 

caeguda,^  fall 

conoguda,^  acquaintance 

creguda,^  increase  in  price 

descenduda,  sinking  away  (of 
melody) 

estenduda,  extent 

jaguda,^  night-quarters,  resting- 
place 

moguda,^  change 

paruda,  appearance 

retenguda,  reserve,  care 

saubuda,  acquaintance 

veguda,^  sight 


garii-,  cure 
grazir,  thank 
mentir,  tell  a  lie 
partir,  depart 
retentir,  resound 
semonir,  admonish 
sortir,  go  out 


atendre,  wait 
ca{z)er,  fall 
conoiser,  know 
creiser,  grow 
descendre,  descend 

estendre,  extend 
jazer,  lie 

mover,  move 
parer,  appear 
retener,  retain 
saber,  know 
vezer,  see 


1  These  forms,  however  much  they  may  differ  from  the  correspond- 
ing infinitive  forms,  have  the  forms  of  the  feminine  of  the  past  participles. 
Thus  the  past  participle  of  c(h)a(z)er  is  c(h)a(z)egut;  of  conoiser  is  conogut; 
of  creiser,  cregut;   mover,  mogut,  etc. 

t  Some  obscure  words  ending  in  -IDA  also  should  be  mentioned.  In 
these,  the  ending  does  not  appear  to  represent  a  past  participle.  Such 
words  are : 

brocida,  whose  meaning  as  well  as  origin  are  obscure.    See  Levy,  1, 167. 

casida,  obscure:   Of  the  same  origin  as  the  Fr.  chassie. 

causida,  thistle:    Obscure. 

consolida,  a  kind  of  plant  (see  Romania,  XII,  101):  From  the  Lat. 
consolida. 

There  are  also  some  words  in  -lA  which  seem  to  belong  here.  These 
are:  bruia  (found  also  as  bruyda),  public  noise;  carpia,  lint;  departia 
and  partia,  departure;  and  repentia,  repentance.  In  these  words  the 
d  of  -IDA  seems  to  have  disappeared,  owing  to  Fr.  influence.  They 
should  be  compared  with  the  Fr.  charpie  and  partie  and  the  O.Fr.  depar- 
tie  and  repentie.  The  meanings  are  such  as  -IDA  could  give,  whereas, 
on  the  other  hand,  -lA  would  not  be  likely  to  be  added  to  verb-stems. 
Partida  and  deparlida,  the  regular  Prov.  forms,  exist  beside  partia  and 
departia. 


30  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Wo  como  next  to  the  use  of  -ADA,  or  the  suffix  -TA 
plus  the  stem-vowel  of  the  first  conjugation,  as  a  suffix 
to  be  attaehed  to  nouns  and  wholly  unconnected  with 
verbs.  This  use  has  been  mentioned  above. ^  Its  mean- 
ings in  this  case  are  rather  varied,  but  are  found  in  most 
of  the  Romance  languages.  The  primary  idea  of  the 
suffix  seems  to  be  that  of  something  contained  (by  the 
noun  to  which  it  is  attached).  With  this  meaning  are 
found  hrasada,  Jornada,  golada,  olada,  and  many  others, 
to  be  seen  in  the  list  below.  From  this  idea  of  as  much 
as  a  thing  can  contain,  or  as  far  as  it  can  reach,  may 
]:)erhaps  be  drawn  such  words  as  balestrada,  reach  of  a 
crossbow,  and  this  idea  extended  to  time  as  well  as  to 
place  gives  such  words  as  Jornada  and  matinada,  corre- 
sponding in  meaning  to  the  French  journee  and  matinee. 
Other  uses  are  those  of  a  tax  to  pay  {hladada,  vmada,  this 
meaning  not  being  very  common,  however),  and  the 
addition  without  force  {ronhonada,  rosada).  Another 
meaning  that  the  suffix  has  is  that  of  a  blow,  as  coltelhada, 
knife-thrust,  though  in  this  particular  case  the  suffix  was 
probably  added  to  a  verb,  coUelar,  which,  however,  is 
not  found.'-  The  other  words  of  this  kind,  as  hastonada, 
espazada,  and  morrada,  may  have  been  formed  by  the 
analogy  of  coltelhada  beside  coltelh.  The  use  of  -ADA 
here  may  be  compared  with  the  use  of  -ADA  in  Spanish 
(as  in  cuchillada) ,  which  has  almost  the  same  meaning  as 
-AZO,-^  a  real  verbal  suffix. 

balestrada,  reach  of  crossbow  balestra,  crossbow 

hastonada,  blows  with  cane  baslon,  cane 

bladada,  fine  in  corn  blat,  corn 

■  P.  25. 

-  It  probably  e.\isted,  nevertheless.     Cf.  the  O.Fr.  couteler  and  the 
Prov.  verbal  derivative  coltelador. 

2  The  Prov.   corresponding  form  -AZON  has  not   this  meaning  of 
a  blow.     For  this  suffix,  see  p.  165. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


31 


boada.  conveyance  by  means  of 
oxen 

bocinada,^  mouthful 

boisada,-  bushes 

boisonada,  bushes 

borgada,  small  borough 

brasada,  armful 

biidelada,  bowels 

carnada,  excrescence 

caronhada,  carcass 

carrada,  carload 

carretada,  carload 

cartairada,^  sort  of  grain-measure 

caupolada,  shipload 

causada,  footpath 

causinada.^  slack-lime 

cenrada,  alkaline  ashes 

clergada,'^  tonsure 

colada,  blow 

coltelhada,  knife-cut 

cominada,  drink  with   caraway- 
seed 

concada,  amount  of  land  which 
can  be  sown  with  a  conca 

copdada,    arm's    length,    elbow- 
room 

corada,  bowels 

correjada,  whip,  lash 

costada,  blow  on  the  ribs 

crampada,  roomful,  company 

denairada,^  penny'5  worth 

drapada,  cloth 


bou,  ox 

bocina,  mouth 
bois,  box-tree 
boison,  bush 
bore,  borough 
bratz,  arm 
budela,  bowels 
earn,  flesh 
caronha,  bodj'' 
ear,  car 
carreta,  car 
earlier,  quarter 
eaupol,  ship 
eausa,  shoe 
eaus,  lime 
cenre,  ashes 
elerc,  clerk,  scholar 
eol,  neck 
coltelh,  knife 
comin,  caraway 

conca,  grain-measure 

code,  co{p)de,  elbow 

eor,  heart 

eorreja,  strap 

cosia,  side 

erampa,  eramba,  eambra,  room 

denier,  penny 

drap,  cloth 


1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  382. 

-  This  ending  here  would  appear  to  give  a  kind  of  collective  force 
to  the  simple  word,  as  in  boisonada  below,  and  in  several  other  words. 
The  meaning  of  boisada  appears  to  have  been  influenced  by  that  of 
boisonada. 

3  Causina  is  not  found,  but  undoubtedly  existed.  See  Mistral 
under  caussino.  Causina  probably  went  back  to  a  Lat.  calcina  formed 
on  calx. 

*  Clergada  has  a  rather  unusual  meaning  contributed  by  the  suffix. 
This  seems  here  to  denote  "the  sign  of. " 

5  See  -AIRADA  under  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 


32 


AVORD-FORMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 


erbada,  medicated  pillow 

escamhada,^  stride 

escudelada,  a  bowlful 

espazada,  sword-cut 

faldada,  lapful 

figairada,-  fig-tree 

formatjoda,  dish  of  cheese  and  eggs 

Jornada,  ovenful;  also  tax  on  ovens 

fromentada,  tax  for  cultivation  of 
cornfields 

fronlada,  street  in  front  of  house 

gaiada,  joke,  teasing 

golada,  mouthful 

grunada,^  a  kind  of  sour  wine 

joncada,  bunch  of  flowers  and 
branches 

Jornada,  day;  day's  work,  etc. 

laiada,  length  of  "lata" 

legada,  space  of  a  league 

lensolada,*  a  sheetful;  a  plant 

linhada,  lineage 

luminada,  hunting-torch 

manada,  handful 

malinada,  day's  length 

mezalhada,  what  is  worth  a  mezal- 
ha;  agrarian  measure 

mojada,  amount  of  land  that  can 
be  sown  with  a  hogshead  of  grain 

inolada,  dust  formed  on  a  grind- 
stone by  its  friction  against  iron 

moltonada,  tax  on  sheep 

morrada,  blow  with  the  snout 


erha,  herb 
camha,  leg 
escudel,  bowl 
espaza,  sword 
falda,  skirt 
figuier,  fig-tree 
formatje,  cheese 
forn,  oven 
froment,  grain 

front,  front 
gai,  joy 
gola,  throat 
grun,  grain 
jonc,  reed 

jorn,  day 

lata,  lath 

lega,  league 

lensol,  sheet,  shroud 

linha,  line 

Inm,^  light 

fnan,  hand 

matin,  morning 

mezalha,  a  coin 

7uoi,  hogshead 

inola,  grindstone 

molton,  sheep 
morre,  snout 


'  See  also  parasyntheta,  p.  526. 

2  See  -AIRADA  under  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

'  Not  in  Raynouard  or  Levy.  See  Romania,  XXXIV,  204,  where 
grun  is  explained  as  coming  from  a  Vulg.  Lat.  *grumis,  due  to  a  con- 
fusion between  granum  and  grumus. 

<  For  this  word,  see  Romania,  XXXVIII,  555,  where  a  Med.  Lat. 
lanceolata  is  given  as  source. 

'  Luminada  can,  however,  hardly  be  formed  directly  on  this  word. 
It  apparently  goes  back  to  a  Lat.  luminata  formed  on  lumen.  Lumina- 
tus  is  given  in  Du  Cange,  although  of  late  date. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


33 


navada,  shipload 

olada,  potful 

olmada,  place  grown  with  elms 

ostalada,  household,  family 

ovelhada,  tax  on  sheep 

padelada,  stoveful 

padenada,  panful 

pairolada,  kettleful 

palada,  shovelful 

palmada,  slap 

panada,  tart,  pie 

pastada,  flattened  or  pressed 
wax  ( ?) 

pastelada,  remainder  of  the  woad 

pebrada,  pepper-sauce 

peirada,  reach  of  catapult;  side- 
walk 

peiregada,  hail  or  hailstorm 

pelada,  skin,  wool 

plaisada,  inclosure  formed  of 
hedges  ( ?) 

planada,  side 

plumada,  feather  ball  (used  in 
curing  falcons) 

pogezada,  article  worth  a  "poges" 

polgada,  thumb's  length;  a  tax 

pomada,  cider 

ponhada,  handful 

porcada,  drove  of  pigs 

poscada,  sour  wine 

resdauzada,  lock  (on  canals) 

ronhonada,  kidney 

rozada,  dew 

saumada,  load  of  a  beast  of  burden 

sestairada,^  a  measure  of  length 

trascambada,^  stride 

valhada,  valley 

ventrada,  belly-full 


nau,  ship 

ola,  pot 

olm,  elm 

oslal,  house,  dwelling 

ovelha,  sheep 

padela,  stove 

padena,  pan 

patrol,  kettle 

pal,  shovel 

palma,  palm  of  the  hand 

pan,  bread 

pasta,  paste,  glue 

pastel,  woad 
pebre,  pepper 
peira,  stone 

peirega,^  hail 
pel,  skin 
plais,  hedge 

plana,  side 
pluma,  feather 

poges,  a  penny  of  Puy 

polga  (?),  thumb 

pom,  apple 

ponh,  fist 

pore,  pig 

*posca,  from  Latin  posca,  a  kind 

of  drink 
resclauza,  mill-dam 
ronhon,  kidney 
ros,  dew 

sauma,  beast  of  burden 
sestier,  a  measure 
camba,  leg 
valh,  valley 
ventre,  belly,  stomach 


1  The  little  Levy  dictionary  lists  this  word  beside  peiregada;   it  does 
not  appear,  however,  in  the  larger  work  or  in  Raynouard. 


2  See  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 


'See  parasyntheta,  p.  526. 


34  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

vesprada,  evening's  length  vesjpre,  evening 

vinada,\  vintage;  tax  on  ^'incs  vin,  wine 

Besides  -ADA,  however,  -UDA  is  found  in  a  very 
few  words  attached  to  nouns.  As  will  be  seen  later,  -UT 
was  added  to  nouns  to  form  adjectives,  Avith  a  special 
meaning  in  a  few  cases,  being  sometimes  substituted 
for  -ATUS  of  the  Latin  word.  The  words  in  which  -UDA 
appears  to  be  attached  to  nouns  are  prol)ably  femi- 
nine forms  of  the  adjective  in  -UT  used  substantivel3\ 
Such  are 

barbuda,  kind  of  helmet  borbu,  beard 

cornuda,^  large  pitcher  or  jar  corn,^  horn 

Another  Provencal    suffix  which   may  be  given  here 

'  Referring  to  the  handles  on  the  pitcher.  An  obscure  word  ending 
in  -UDA  is  cociida,  a  kind  of  plant.  Menuda,  rough  draft  (also  detailed 
account  [  ?]),  and  in  the  plural,  meaning  "entrails,"  is  the  feminine  form 
of  the  adjective  menut  used  substantively. 


t  There  is  also  a  list  of  words  ending  in  -ADA  beside  which  no  simple 
Prov.  word  is  found,  and  which  are  more  or  less  obscure.     Such  arc: 

bugada,  wash:   Du  Cange  gives  bitgata  as  vox  hispanica. 

camilhada,  henbane:  For  this  word,  see  Rotnania,  XXXIV,  200. 
Here  Thomas  suggests  that  camilhada  is  a  bad  spelling  for  canilhada  < 
caniculata  for  calyculata. 

corogada,  service,  drudgery:  Probably  goes  back  to  a  Lat.  *corrogata, 
from  corrogarc. 

csguilhada,  a  kind  of  pear:    Is  very  obscure. 

faisenada,   burden :    Apparently  connected  with  fais,  burden,  but 

it  is  spelled  in  several  ways,  and  is  somewhat  doubtful.     See  Levy,  III, 

390. 

fegalada,  mixture  of  drugs:    Is  obscure. 

ferlada,  place  planted  with  southern  wood:  Probably  from /cr/a,  for 
ferula. 

ferrada,  entrails:    Is  obscure. 

flasada,  woolen  covering:  Du  Cange  gives  flaciata,  flausada,  flasciata, 
and  flassada. 

gamada,  a  bowl:  From  the  adjective  gattunalus,  from  Gr. 
gamma  (v). 

garavasada,  dry  land:  Very  obscure.  The  first  part  is  possibly  con- 
nected with  vervactum,  but  the  s  is  difficult  to  account  for. 

ostada,  woolen  cloth:     From  Engl,  "worsted."     See  Nouv.  Ess.,  311. 

pinganada,  lamb's  pluck:    Obscure. 


Formation  of  Nouns  35 

is  -EIA,  coming,  as  it  apparently  does,  from  the  same 

source  as  -ADA,  -TA  added  to  nouns.     The  form  seems 

to  be  due  to  French  influence  in  such  words  as  fumee, 

livree,  etc.     The  Provengal  examples^  are: 

fumeia,  smoke  Jum,  smoke 

liureia,  delivery  liurar,  deliver 

mareia,  tide  mar,  sea 

nuiteia,  night  nuit,  night 

-ADITZ,  -EDITZ 

The  suffixes  -A-DITZ,  -A-DIS,  -E-DITZ,  -E-DIS,  seem 
to  represent  the  Latin  suffix  -TICIUS  with  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  verbs  to  which  they  were  joined.  The 
usual  process  was  to  form  adjectives,  as,  for  example, 
plegadis;  but  in  a  few  words  we  find  the  suffix  used  in 
forming  nouns,  which  nouns  may  be  only  adjectives  used 
substantively.  In  Latin,  a  suffix  -TICIUS  is  formed  by 
adding  -ICIUS  to  the  supine  or  past  participle  of  verbs, 
as  in  adventicius,  ascripticius,  collaticius,^  dediticius,  thus 
giving  -A-DITZ  and  -E-DITZ  in  Provengal. 

With  the  spelhng  -ADIS,  we  see  -DIS  (representing 

-TICIUS)  joined  to  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  in: 

capladis,  carnage  caplar,  slaughter 

filadis,  tow  filar,  spin 

rayadis,  ray  rayar,  shine 

and  with  a  feminine  ending,  there  is 

lauradisa,  plowing  (?)  laurar,  plow 

There  is  also  a  regularly  formed  adjective  from  labor  are: 

lahoraditz,  plowable.     Lauradisa  looks  like  a  substantive 

use  of  the  feminine  form. 

1  These  words  all  have  corresponding  forms  in  Fr.  Words  besides 
which  no  simple  form  is  found  are  macleia,  stains,  and  pureia,  "puree." 
The  latter  is  probably  an  imitation  of  the  Fr.  puree,  and  macleia  seems 
to  come  from  the  Lat.  maculata. 

-  Goelzer,  143. 


3(3  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

With  the  spelhng  -ADITZ  is  fountl 

cridaditz,  uproar  cridar,  cry 

panaditz,  theft  panar,  steal 

plaisaditz,  hedge  plaisar,  surround  with  a  hedge 

podestaditz,  mighty  lord  podestat,  power 

and  under  -EDITZ,  we  find 

aveneditz,  stranger  avenir,  come 

escroicheditz,  breaking  escroichir,  break 

Both  of  these  words  may  be  regarded  also  as  forms  of 
adjectives  used  substantively;  but  in  both  of  them, 
according  to  the  rule,  we  should  expect  from  the  infinitive 
in  -ir  forms  in  -IDITZ  rather  than  -EDITZ.  Thomas 
explains  the  e  in  escroicheditz,  the  only  word  he  mentions, 
by  the  dissimilating  influence  of  the  accented  vowel  i 
on  a  preceding  vowel. ^  This  principle  might  also  apply 
to  aveneditz.  The  other  derived  words  here  have  i,  as 
avenimen,  avenidor,  although  besides  avenimen,  Ray- 
nouard  gives  avenement.  Could  there  perhaps  have  been 
in  Provencal  a  second  infinitive  in  -er  (vener)  under  the 
influence  of  tener — as  in  Gascon,  where  the  infinitive 
is  biei'- — and  such  as  is  seen  in  cosir  beside  coser,  with  their 
derivatives  cosidura  as  well  as  cosedura  f 

-ADOR,    -EDOR,    -IDOR 

The  Provengal  suffixes  coming  from  the  Latin  -TOR 
will  be  treated  here  together  as  a  group,  although  there 
are  two  distinct  forms  for  each  conjugation;  and  as  three 
suffixes  already'  have  been  distinguished  according  to 
the  stem-vowel  to  which  they  were  attached,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  suffix  -TA,  there  are  here  six  forms  in  all. 
Thus  for  the  first  conjugation  we  find  -AIRE  and  -ADOR; 

'  Essais,  16.    Levy  spells  the  words  escroisir  and  escroisediiz. 
=  Ibid.,  17. 


Formation  of  Nouns  37 

for  the  verbs  in  -er  and  -re,  -EIRE  and  -EDOR;  and 
for  the  verbs  in  -ir,  -IRE,  and  -IDOR.^  The  first 
form  in  each  of  these  pairs  represents  the  development 
of  the  nominative  singular;  the  second,  that  of  the  other 
cases.  Consequently,  each  word  could  be  found  in  both 
forms  originally,  and  if  found  only  once,  it  might  almost 
as  well  have  one  form  as  the  other.  Later,  however,  the 
two  cases  became  confused  and  lost  their  grammatical 
value.  As  the  forms  in  -DOR,  being  used  for  more  cases, 
are  far  commoner,  the  Provengal  form  of  the  Latin  -TOR 
is  given  under  the  heading  -ADOR,  or  the  form  in  -DOR 
for  the  first  conjugation.  Each  word  is  likewise  given  with 
the  ending  in  -DOR,  but  where  Raynouard  gives  only  the 
endings  -AIRE,  -EIRE,  -IRE,  this  is  indicated.^ 

As  for  the  meaning  of  the  group  of  suffixes,  there  is 
no  great  difficulty.  It  denotes  the  agent  of  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb-stem  to  which  the  suffixes  are  attached. 
All  cases  where  this  meaning  is  not  clearly  expressed  will 
be  treated  in  the  notes,  and  all  cases  in  which  the  suffix  is 
not  added  to  a  verb-stem  will  be  given  in  a  separate  list. 

1  The  forms  -AIRE,  -ADOR,  and  -IRE,  -IDOR  go  back  phonetically 
to  -ATOR,  -ATOREM,  and  -ITOR,  -ITOREM,  which  were  added  to 
verbs  of  the  Lat.  first  and  fourth  conjugations.  -EDOR  might  be  de- 
rived from  -ITOREM  (except  that  an  unaccented  vowel  just  before  the 
primary  accent  should  disappear),  but  -EIRE  cannot  possibly  be  derived 
from  -ITOR.  Instead,  it  must  come  from  -ETOR,  an  ending  formed 
by  analogy  with  -ATOR  and  -ITOR.     See  Essais,  25. 

=  Many  of  these  words  formed  a  complete  four-form  declension  in 
-ADOR,  and  some  others  had  it  with  the  ending  -AIRE,  whereas  many 
still  kept  both  fornas.  Levy  always  gives  each  word  under  the  heading 
in  -DOR,  though  the  word  quoted  may  often  appear  in  his  examples 
with  the  ending  in  -AIRE  (as  in  conquistador).  Raynouard  often 
cites  a  form  as  ending  in  -AIRE,  but  generally  gives  both  forms  in  the 
vocabulary  in  the  sixth  volume  of  his  dictionary.  For  these  reasons 
words  with  both  endings  will  be  listed  under  headings  in  -DOR,  and  cases 
where  forms  in  -AIRE  exist  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  notes.  In  the 
second  and  third  conjugations,  the  nominative  forms  in  -EIRE  and  -IRE 
are  very  rare. 


38 


W()Kl)-F\)RMATION    IN    PrOVEN(,'AL 


abtiador,*  clieat,  swiiuUcr 
acomunalhador,  sharer 
adobador,^  arbiter,  redresser 
adoUrador,  adulterer 
adordenador,  *  administrator 
ajachndor,  preparer 
afa nador,  workman 
afiiindor,  refiner 
agachador,  spy 

aglaziador,  kidnapper,  soul-s(!ller 
ajudador*  helper 
ajustador*  conciliator 
albcrgador,  innkeeper 
albirador,  judge,  critic 
amador,  lover  (usual  word  is  aman) 
amaeslrador,  teacher 
amasador,*  treasurer 
amortador,  destroyer 
amparador,  protector,  invader 
anador*  traveler,  one  who  goes 
anonciador,  announcer 
apelador,  appellant  (law) 
apropchador,  one  who  approaches 
auzelador,  fowler,  bird-catcher 
avantador,  boaster;    also  man  of 

advance-guard 
avoutrador,  adulterer 
azemprador,  solicitor 
baisador,  carder 
bescantador,  slanderer 
blasmador*  one  who  blames 
bolador,*    (1)    one     who     marks 

boundaries;    (2)  limitor  (a  friar 

licensed  to  beg  alms  within  a 

certain  limit;-    (3)  also  seller  of 

indulgences 

1  This  word  may  not  exist.  It  occurs  in  the  text,  but  Levy,  follow- 
ing its  editor,  Stickney,  corrects  to  adobat,  which  he  says  the  rhj-me,  the 
sense,  and  syllable-count  ail  require. 

'Compare  the  Middle  Engl,  "liniitour"  in  the  Prologue  to  Chau- 
cer's Canterbury  Tales,  1.  209. 


abctar,  cheat 
acomunalhar,  share 
adobar,  equip,  arm 
adoUrar,  commit  adultery 
adordenar,  arrange 
afachar,  prepare 
afanar{ne},  work 
afinar,  refine 
agachar,  watch 
aglaziar,  kill 
ajudar,  help 
ajustar,  adjust 
albergar,  lodge 
albirar,  imagine,  estimate 
amar,  love 
amaestrar,  arrange 
amasar,  heap  up 
aniortar,  deaden 
amparar,  protect 
anar,  go 

anonciar,  announce 
apelar,  call 
apropchar,  approach 
auzelar,  hunt  birds 
avantar,  advance 

avoutrar,  commit  adultery 

azemprar,  solicit 

baisar,  card 

bescantar,  murmur  words 

blasmar,  blame 

bolar,  limit 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


39 


cambiador,  *  money-changer 
caminador,  guide 
cantador,  singer 
capdelador,  leader 
cardador,  carder 
casador,  hunter 
castiador,  teacher 
cavador,  sapper,  digger 
cercador,  seeker,  investigator 
citador*  one  who  quotes 
cobezejador,  one  who  covets 
coltivador,  cultivator 
compilador,  compiler 
confesador,  confessor 
conjurador*  enchanter 
conquistador,  conqueror 
conrezador,  preparer  of  leather 
conselhador*  counselor 
consirador,*  dreamer 
conspirador,  conspirator 
contador*  narrator 
contrariador,  *  contradictor 
contrastador,*   slanderer; 

enemy  (L) 
cordador,  ropemaker 
cordalador,  official  who  measures 

with  a  "corda" 
cortejador*  courtier 
creador,*  creator 
criador,*  crier 
cujador,*  cuidador,  thinker 
curador,  one  who  cures 
damnatjador,  damager 
dechador,  one  who  composes 
defensador,  defender 
demandador,*  one  who  asks 
demorador,  dweller 
demostrador,  demonstrator,  teacher 
descausador,  one  who  lays  roots 

bare 
desliwador,  deliverer,  liberator 


cambiar,  change 

candnar,  journey 

cantar,  sing 

capdelar,  lead 

cardar,  card 

casar,  hunt 

castiar,  correct,  reprove 

cavar,  dig 

cercar,  seek 

citar,  quote 

cobezejar,  covet 

coltivar,  cultivate 

compilar,  compile 

confesar,  confess 

conjurar,  conjure 

conquistar,  conquer 

conrezar,  equip 

cotiselhar,  advise 

consirar,  consider 

conspirar,  conspire 

contar,  narrate 

conirariar,  oppose,  contradict 

contrastar,  resist 

cordar,  make  rope 

cordalar,  measure  with  a  ''corda" 

cortejar,  court 
crear,  create 
criar,  cry 

cujar,  cuidar,  think 
curar,  cure 
damnatjar,  damage 
dechar,  compose 
defensor,  defend 
demandar,  ask 
demorar,  dwell 
demostrar,  demonstrate 
descausar,  lay  bare 

desliurar,  deliver 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


40 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


desmador,^  tax-collector 
despauzador,  depositor 
dcsperador,  one  who  despairs 
destermenador,  exteririinator 
destinador,  administrator  ( ?) 
destrador,  measurer 
desvergenador,*  ra\4sher 
determinador,  arbitrator,  umpire 
detriador,  judge 

devinador,*  spy,  explorer;  slan- 
derer, soothsayer  (R) 

dezencuzndor,  excuser 

dezerelador,  spoiler  of  inheritances 

dictador,^  *  author 

doctrinador,  teacher 

domnejador,  gallant 

empachador,  one  who  prev'ents, 
disturber 

empenhador,  pawnbroker 

empetrador,  grantee,  patentee 

enansador*  extoller,  preacher 

encantador,  enchanter 

encausador,  pursuer 

encolpador,  accuser 

endresador,^  *  redresser  ( ?) 

enganador,  *  deceiver 

engenhador,  engineer 

engenrador,*  creator,  generator 

enjuriador,  insulter 

enquistador,^  *  inquirer,  solicitor 


desmar,  tithe 
despauzar,  deposit 
desperar,  despair 
destermenar,  put  beyond  limits 
deslinar,  destine 
destrar,  measure 
desvergenar,  ravish 
determinar,  determine 
delriar,-  distinguish,  take  ac- 
count of 
devinar,  guess,  divine 

dezencuzar,  excuse 
dezeretar,  disinherit 
dictar,  write,  compose 
doctrinar,  teach 
domnejar,  pay  court  to 
empachar,  prevent 

empenhar,  pledge 
empetrar,  obtain 
enansar,  advance,  raise 
encaidar,  enchant 
encausar,  pursue 
encolpar,  accuse 
endresar,  set  right 
enganar,  deceive 
engenhar,  devise 
engenrar,  engender 
enjuriar,  insult 


1  In  this  word  Levy  finds  only  the  ending  -AIRE  and  the  stem 
deim-.     See  II,  146. 

=  This  should  not  be  confused  with  detriar  meaning  "to  stop."  The 
detriar  given  above  is  found  also  as  destriar,  i.e.,  with  the  prefix  des- 
instead  of  de-. 

3  Of  the  same  origin  as  dechador,  above. 

*  This  word  is  doubtful  according  to  Levy,  who  does  not  understand 
it. 

»  Enquistnr  is  not  found  except  with  a  special  meaning;  enquistador 
is  apparently  formed  on  enquest,  the  past  participle  of  enquerre. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


41 


ensegador,  follower,  disciple  (in 
this  word  there  is  apparently 
a  borrowing  of  -ADOR  from 
the  first  conjugation) 

ensenhador,*  teacher,  master 

cnterro(ior,*  grave-digger 

envejador,  emulator,  rival ;  an  en- 
vious person  (R) 

envidador,  one  who  invites 

esajador,  assayer,  one  who  tests 

esbaralhador,  fighter,  brawler 

escandalhador,  one  who  gauges 

escoltivador,  cultivator' 

escrimador,  fighter 

escurador,  one  who  scours 

esforsador,  strengthener 

esgardador,  onlooker 

espaventador,  that  which  terrifies 

esperador,  *  one  who  hopes 

esperonador,  one  who  spurs 

esplanador,  one  who  explains 

esproador,*  one  who  tests  or 
verifies 

estimador,  appraiser 

estivador,  harvester 

examinador,  examiner 

exoniador,  excuser 

fermador,  witness 

ferrador,  farrier,  blacksmith 

filador,  spinner 

flatador,*  flatterer 

flautador,  flute-player 

forsador,*  seizer,  violator 

fofjador,  digger 

fraudador,  defrauder,  smuggler 

frondejador,  sling-man 

gabador,  boaster 

gachador,  sentinel 

galiador,  deceiver,  seducer 

gardador,  keeper 


ensegre,  pursue 


ensenhar,  teach 
enterrar,  bury 
envejar,  envy 

envidar,  invite 
esajar,  assay,  test 
esbaralhar,  fight 
escandalhar,  gauge 

escrimar,  fight 
escurar,  scour 
esforsar,  strengthen  ( ?) 
esgardar,  look  on 
espaventar,  terrify 
esperar,  hope 
esperonar,  spur  on 
esplanar,  explain,  smooth 
esproar,  test 

esiimar,  appraise 
estivar,  harvest 
examinar,  examine 
exoniar,  excuse 
fermar,  witness 
ferrar,  bind  with  iron 
filar,  spin 
fiatar,  flatter 
flaiitar,  play  the  flute 
forsar,  force 
fotjar,  dig 
fraudar,  defraud 
frondejar,  use  a  sling 
gabar,  boast 
gachar,  watch 
galiar,  deceive 
gardar,  keep 


1  See  nominal  parasyntheta,  p.  526. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE, 


42 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


gardejador  {or  gardlador),  protector 

gastador,  *  devastator 

gatjador,  one  who  makes  a  soizuro 

gaujador,  weigher,  measurer 

gazanhador,  piUager 

gazardonador,  *  remunerator 

glozador,  commentator 

governador,^  governor 

grondilhador,  telltale,  backbiter 

guerrejador,  warrior 

guidador*  guide  (spelled  also 
guizador,  guiador) 

guilador,  deceiver 

ichilhador,  *  destroyer 

imaginador,  one  who  carves  im- 
ages, sculptor 

intrador,-  one  who  enters 

janglador*  chatterer,  mocker 

jogador,  actor 

joglador,  "jongleur" 

jostador,  jouster,  opponent 

justesiador,  dispenser  of  justice 

jiUjador,  judge 

laisador,  testator 

laurador,  plowman 

lauzenjador,  liar 

levador,  tax-collector 

liador,  packer 

logador,  lodger,  hired  workman 

mandador,^  messenger,  baker's  boy 

manejador,  dealer,  receiver 

masador,  murderer 

meisonador,  harvester 

menador*  conductor 

menasador,  *  one  who  threatens 

menuzador,  joiner 

1  A  feminine  form  in  -ORA  also  exists. 

'  This  same  word  is  also  found  with  another  meaning.     See  p.  55. 
5  For  mandador  with  another  meaning  see  p.  55. 
*  The  verb  as  well  as  the  noun  probably  had  also  a  more  specialized 
meaning,  though  this  is  not  found.     Cf.  the  Fr.  menuiser. 


gardejar,  hold  watch 
gastar,  lay  waste 
galjar,  make  a  seizure 
gaujar,  weigh 
gazanhar,  gain 
gazardonar,  reward 
glozar,  gloss,  explain 
governar,  govern 
grondilhar,  murmur 
guerrejar,  make  war 
guidar,  guide 

guilar,  deceive 
ichUhar,  destroy 
imaginar,  decorate  with  sculp- 
ture 
intrar,  enter. 
janglar,  chatter 
jogar,  play 
joglar,  do  tricks 
jostar,  joust 
justesiar,  give  justice 
jutjar,  judge 
laisar,  leave 
laurar,  plow 
lauzenjar,  lie 
levar,  raise 
liar,  bind 
logar,  let,  hire 
mandar,  send 
manejar,  wield,  handle 
rnasar,  strike 
meisonar,  harvest 
vienar,  lead 
menasar,  threaten 
menuzar,*  diminish 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


43 


meravelhador,*  admirer 
mercejador,  *  suppliant 
niercenejador,  sympathetic  person 
mesprezador,  *  scoffer 
jnestivador,  reaper,  harvester 
mezurador,  measurer 
minador,  miner 
ministrador,  administrator 
mirador,^  *  contemplator 
Diondador,  cleaner,  winnower 
montador,  climber 
mostrador,  indicator 
murador,  mason 
m u rm urador,  murmurer 
muzador,  idler 
navejador,  sailor 
negociador,  merchant 
nonciador,  herald 
oltracujador,  bold  person 
ostejador,  one  who  takes  part  in  a 

military  expedition 
pagador,  payer,  payee 
panador,  thief 
parador,  *  preparer 
pariador,*  companion,  partner 
parlador,^  *  chatterer,  go-between 
pazimentador ,  paver 
peatjador,  toll-collector 

pechador,  collector  of  fines 

penador,  *  expiator 

penhoradoi-,    one    who    makes    a 

seizure 
pensador,  thinker 
perforsador,  supporter,  aid 
pergador,  one  who  measures  with 

a  pole 
pervalador,  grave-digger^ 


meravelhar,  marvel 
mercejar,  ask  mercy 
mercenejar,  be  sympathetic 
mesprezar,  scoff,  scorn 
mestivar,  reap 
mezurar,  measure 
minar,  mine 
ministrar,  administer 
mirar,  look  at 
mondar,  clean 
montar,  mount 
mostrar,  show 
murar,  wall  up 
murmurar,  murmur 
muzar,  waste  time 
navejar,  sail 
negociar,  trade 
nonciar,  announce 
oltracujar,  be  presumptuous 
ostejar,  make  war 

pagar,  pay 

panar,  steal 

parar,  prepare 

pariar,  share 

parlar,  speak 

pazimentar,  pave 

peatjar,  submit  to  toll;   peatjar- 

(se)  pay  toll 
pechQT,  fine 
penar,  punish,  expiate 
penhorar,  make  a  seizure 

pensar,  think 
perforsar{se),  strive 
pergar,  measure  with  a  pole 


1  For  mirador  and  pariador  with  other  meanings,  and  of  different 
origin,  see  p.  55. 

2  See  nominal  parasyntheta,  p.  526. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


44 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


pilhador,  plunderer 
pititador,  painter 

plaidejador,  *  litigant ;  also  attorney 
plantador,  planter,  gardener 
plasejador*  itinerant  peddler 
plasmador,  creator 
poblador,-  settler,  colonist 
ponchador*  an  ecclesiastical  office 

(Fr.  chanoine  pointeur) 
porgador,  sifter 
potzador,  drawer 
prejador,  *  suppliant ;  lover 
prestador,*  lender 
prezador,  appraise* 
prezentador,  one  who  offers 
proador*  examiner 
probajador,  layerer  of  vines 
profetizador,  projjhet 
prononciador,  judge,  arbiter 
questador,  collector  of  the  "questa" 
questionador,  person  to  be  put  on 

the  rack 
rapador*  ravishcr 
raubador,*  robber 
razonador,*  reasoner 
regardador,  *  onlooker 
remendador,  one  who  revives 
resemblador,  *  imitator 
scairador,  one  who  cuts   animals 

into  quarters 
^egador,  harvester 
sermonador,*  preacher 
sonador,  crier,  preacher 


pilhar,  plunder 

pinlar,  paint 

plaidejar,  go  to  law 

plantar,  plant 

plasejar,  seek  public  squares^ 

plasniar,  form,  create 

poblar,  settle 

ponchar,  point 

porgar,  sift 

potzar,  draw,  fetch 

prejar,  pray 

prestar,  lend 

prezar,  appraise 

prezentar,  offer 

proar,  test 

probajar,  layer  (vines) 

profetizar,  prophesy 

prononciar,  pronounce 

questa,  a  tax 

questionar,  put  on  the  rack 

rapar,  snatch  away 
raubar,  steal 
razonar,  reason 
regardar,  look  at 
remendar,  revive 
resemblar,  resemble 
scairar,  quarter 

scgar,  harvest 
sermonar,  preach 
sonar,  sound,  ring 


'  With  the  purpose  of  selling  goods.  The  verb  is  formed  on  plasa, 
public  square,  and  the  plasejador  probably  indicates  one  who  seeks  these 
places,  although  from  another  meaning  of  plasa  given  by  Levy,  namely, 
a  "court  of  justice,"  plasejador  might  possibly  indicate  a  member  of  the 
court.  Raynouard's  translation  of  "man  out  of  work"  hardlj'  fits  the 
example. 

2  A  Lat.  populator  exists,  but  with  another  meaning. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 


Formation  of  Nouns  45 

ermenador,  one  who  sets  bound-  termenar,  limit 

aries 

testimoniador ,  witness  testimoniar ,  testify 

tombador,  tumbler,  dancer  tombar,  fall 

tornejador,  j ouster  tornejar,  joust 

trafegador,  merchant,  trafficker  trafegar,  traffic 

trasgitador,*  juggler,  trickster  trasgitar,  juggle 

traspasador,*  transgressor  traspasar,  transgress,  exceed 

trencador,  cutter  trencar,  cut 

triador*  a  judge  (one  who  appre-  triar,  sort,  choose 

ciates) 

trichador,  cheat,  deceiver  trichar,  cheat 

trompador,  trumpeter  trompar,  play  trumpet 

trufador,*  joker  trufar,  joke 

vairador,^  *  furrier  vairar,  change 

vanador,  *  boaster  vanar,  boast 

venjador,*  avenger  venjar,  avenge 

ventozador*  cupper  ventozar,  let  blood 

violador,  *t  one  who  plays  the  viola  violar,  play  the  viola 

Besides  the  words  in  the  Hst  just  given,  which  have  an 
obvious  verb-source,  there  is  a  smaller  list  of  words  end- 
ing in  -ADOR  with  no  apparent  verb  at  their  base.  Some 
of  these  must  have  been  formed  on  verbs,  as  is  often 
clear  by  a  comparison  with  other  languages  {dolador, 
violentador) ,  whereas  others  seem  to  have  been  formed  on 
nouns  (compesador,  especiador),  and  some  have  no  appar- 
ent source  in  Provengal.  In  many  of  the  noun-formations, 
it  is  easy  to  find  a  starting-point  among  the  regular 
verb-formations.     The  list  follows: 

hilhador:  The  word  is  listed  in  Levy,  where  the  follow- 
ing translations  are  given:  skittle-player  or  bowler,  pack- 

1  Vairador,  furrier,  has  not  apparently  much  connection  with  the 
verb  vairar,  to  change,  and  was  undoubtedly  constructed  from  the  noun 
vair,  a  fur  of  different  colors. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -AIRE. 

t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are  oblador,  contiihutor <oblator;  obrador, 
artisan  < operator;  and  ponhador,  fighter,  from  pugnator.  For  obrador  with 
another  meaning,  see  p.  55. 


46  WoHD-FomrATION    IN   Proven(,\\l 

servant,  and  wood-cutter,  all  with  interrogation  jioints. 
The  only  apj^ariMit  word  at  the  base  of  the  compound 
is  bilha,  cudgel-play,  and  the  connection  is  not  clear. 
Lev}',  however,  quotes  from  Mistral  the  phrase  "biha 
rase"^  =  '^serrer  la  charge  sur  le  bat  de  Vane."  From  this 
he  draws  the  second  meaning  given  above.  This  would 
seem  to  point  to  an  old  Provencal  bilhar,  from  which  the 
word  bilhador  may  have  been  derived. - 

brezador,  ])ird-hunter,  trapper:  There  is  no  verb 
brezar,  but  onl}'  the  noun  bretz,  a  trap.  This  word,  as 
also  buzatador,  a  buzzard-hunter  (from  buzat,  a  buzzard), 
might  have  been  formed  by  the  analogy  of  auzelador, 
a  bird-catcher,  which  has,  however,  a  verb  auzelhar  as  its 
base- word. 

buzatador:   -See  preceding   word. 

charmador,  enchanter,  charmer:  No  verb  charmar,  but 
only  the  noun  charme  appears  as  the  base- word.  Here, 
again,  analogy  may  explain  the  form,  as,  for  instance, 
encantador,  from  encantar,  not  from  encant;  or  conjurador, 
also  meaning  enchanter. 

coltelador,  one  who  fights  armed  with  a  knife:  Onlj' 
coltel{a)  is  found,  but  in  Old  French  we  find  a  word  couteler. 
Coltelar  probably  existed  also. 

comentador,  commentator:  Comentar  is  not  found. 
Compare,  however,  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish. 

co?npesador,  land-register  official:  Apparently  from 
compes,  land-register,  without  any  verb  intervening. 

■  I,  288. 

-The  question  is  just  what  this  verb  meant.  It  was  probably 
cither  to  cut  wood  or  to  load  it.  If  the  first,  bilhador  might  mean 
wood-cutter;  if  the  second,  it  might  mean  pack-servant,  or  possibly 
skittle-player.  Bilha  probably  originally  meant  billet  and  might  give 
rise  to  the  verb  *hilhar.  It  was  a  further  development  for  it  to  mean 
the  play  of  billets  or  cudgels.  Bilha  with  this  meaning  may  even  be  a 
post-verbal  derived  from  the  verb  when  the  original  bilha  disappeared. 


Formation  of  Nouns  47 

conrezador,  one  who  prepares  leather:  This  comes  from 
the  verb  conrezar  or  conrear,  to  equip.  Conrezar  is  not 
found  in  the  hsts,  but  this  word  and  conrear  would  be 
simply  different  developments,  of  course,  of  the  d  of  the 
source.  The  specialization  of  the  meaning  in  the  noun 
is  worthy  of  notice.^ 

contrajogador,  opponent  in  play:  This  may  be  a 
compound  of  the  word  jogador,  player,  and  the  preposi- 
tion contra,  against,^  or  contrajogar  may  have  existed. 

contrarolador,  controller:  No  verb  appears  here,  but 
one  probably  existed.  Compare  French  controler  <_  contra 
-\-rotidare.  Contrarole,  on  which  the  word  is  apparently 
formed,  has  the  same  meaning  as  contrarolador. 

criminaire,  criminal:  No  verb  criminar  is  found, 
although  there  is  the  derived  encriminar  and  the  feminine 
noun  encriminairitz.  The  prefix  may  perhaps  have  been 
dropped  through  some  confusion,  but  it  seems  more 
probable  that  there  was  a  verb  *  criminar,  or  that  the 
word  criminaire  was  formed  on  criminal  by  the  substi- 
tution of  -AIRE  for  -AL,^  or  by  a  false  analogy  with 
the  forms  rauhaire  from  raubar,  and  rapaire  from  rapar. 

dardejador,  a  soldier  armed  with  a  javelin:  Here  it 
seems  as  though  there  must  have  been  a  verb  *dardejar. 
The  ej  before  the  termination  seems  to  point  only  to  the 
verbal  enchng  -EJAR. 

dolador,  wood-cutter,  wood-worker:  Although  no  verb 
dolar  appears  in  Provengal,  it  appears  in  Spanish  with  the 
meaning  of  "to  plane  wood,"  with  a  derivative  dolador. 
The  same  verb  probably  existed  also  in  Provengal. 

1  Undoubtedly  influenced  by  coirier,  leather-dealer.  Murray, 
under  currier,  says:  "a  confusion  between  the  two  words  appears  already 
in  O.Fr.,  where  we  find  coroier,  couroier  as  variants  of  coriier,  in  which 
the  oi  is  due  to  corroyer,  corroyeur." 

2  See  nominal  prefixes,  p.  468.  '  See  also  especiaire,  p.  48. 


48  AVoRD-FoRMATiox  IX  Provenc^al 

especiaire,  a  spice-seller :  There  is  no  verb  especiar, 
and  here  there  is  apparently  a  ehanp;e  of  suffix  from  the 
-ALE  of  the  Italian  speciole  and  Provencal  especial < 
speciale  to  the  -ATOR  represented  by  the  -AIRE  of 
this  word.  This  suffix-change  might  explain  also  the 
-AIRE  of  criminaire  (see  p.  47). 

estrolomiador,  astrologist :  This  looks  like  a  late 
addition  of  the  suffix  -ADOR  to  the  learned  estrolomia. 
There  is  also,  however,  a  word  eMronomejador,  which 
looks  like  a  formation  on  a  verb  *edronomejar,  easily 
formed  from  estronomia. 

estronomejador:  See  estrolomiador. 

fezicador,  physician :  This  appears  to  be  formed  on  the 
noun  fezica  without  any  verb  intervening,  just  as  estrolo- 
miador was  formed.  From  these  two  words,  this  kind 
of  formation  would  appear  possible  in  learned  and  scientific 
words. 

ginhador,  engineer:  Onlj^  gink  and  not  ginhar  is  found. 
enginhar,  however,  existed,  as  well  as  enginhador,  and 
ginhador  is  probably  due  to  the  analogy  of  these  words. 

luquetaire,^  locksmith:   From  luquet,  lock. 

muzicaire-ador,  musician:  Although  there  is  no  verb 
muzicar,  but  only  the  noun  muzica,  a  starting-point  for 
this  word  may  be  seen  both  in  trompaire,  trumpeter,  from 
the  verb  trompar,  and  violaire,  player  of  the  "viola," 
from  violar.     See  also  orguenaire,  below. 

novelhador,  novel-writer:  Appears  to  be  formed  on 
novelha,  novel. 

'  This  word  is  interesting  and.  peculiar  in  that  it  is  given  in  Levy 
with  the  ending  -AIRE  instead  of  -ADOR,  and  is,  with  orguenaire.  the 
only  word  that  denotes  persons  given  there  with  this  spelling.  -AIRE 
here  may  possibly  represent  -ARIUS,  which  was  regularly  added  to 
nouns.  But  if  so,  it  is  not  clear  why  it  escaped  the  usual  non-phonetic 
development  into  -lER. 


Formation  of  Nouns  49 

olivador,  olive-gatherer:  oliva,  olive. 

orguenaire,^  organ-maker:  orgue{na),  organ. 

parciador,-   sharer,   part-owner. 

seglejador,  worldly  person:  No  verb  seglejar  is  found, 
l)ut  in  all  probability  it  existed,  just  as  *dardejar  did.  It 
would,  of  course,  have  been  formed  on  segle,  world. 

violentador,  persecutor :  The  word  is  apparently  formed 
on  the  adjective  violen{t).  There  is,  however,  a  verb 
violenter  in  Old  French,  and  *violentar  probably  existed 
in  Provengal.y 

The  forms  in  -EDOR  and  -IDOR  follow.  Under 
-EDOR  are  found: 

acreisedor,  one  who  increases  (L);  acreiser,  increase 

protector  (R) 

coledor,  worshipper  coler,  worship 

comonedor,  warner,  adviser  comonre,  comonir,  warn 

conoisedor,*  "connoisseur"  conoiser,  know 

conqueredor,  conqueror  conquerre,  conquer 

corredor,  partisan,  runner  corre,  run 

cozedor,  one  who  sews  cozer,  sew 

crezedor,*  believer  cre{ze)r,  believe 

defendedor,  defender  defendre,  defend 

destrenhedor,  official  who  raises  tax  destrenher,  compel 

forcibly 

dizedor  (also  diredor),  talker  dizer,  dire,  say,  speak 

emprendedor,  one  who  undertakes  emprendre,  undertake 

iCf.  n.  l,p.  48. 

-  Parciador  seems  to  show  a  substitution  of  -ADOR  for  -lER.  Cf. 
parcier. 

*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -EIRE. 

t  There  are  also  two  words  not  put  in  either  of  the  above  Hsts  because 
no  simple  word — whether  verb  or  noun — is  found  on  which  they  could 
be  formed.     These  are: 

borbolhador,  deceiver:  Cf.,  however,  Sp.  borbolhar.  It.  barbogUare. 
A  Prov.  borbolhar  seems  probable,  therefore. 

clincador,  calker:  A  more  obscure  word.  It  may  be  connected  in 
some  way  with  the  Dutch  klinken. 


50 


WOKD-FORMATION    IN    PrOVEN(;AL 


enfranhedor  (R),'  oath-breaker 

entendedor,  lover 

esmolcdor,  grinder 

fazedor,  maker 

fenhedor,  hypocrite 

folcdor,  cohabitor 

franhedor,  one  who  abandons,  or 

breaks,  a  rule 
jazedor,  sodomist 
jonhedor,  fighter 
tnnldizedor,'  blasphemer 

malfatedor,-  evU-doer 

malvoledor,-  ill-wisher,  enemy 

inantenedor,^  protector,  helper 

metedor,  generous  person,  spend- 
thrift 

nozedbr,  one  who  injures  (a  person) 

ofendedor,  offender 

penhedor,*  painter 

perdedor,  loser;  destroyer 

posezedor*  possessor 

prendedor,  receiver,  cashier 

prenedor,  ravisher,  taker 

prevezedor,  provider;  municipal 
treasurer 

queredor,  investigator,  solicitor 

razedor,  shaver,  barber 

respondedor,  interlocutor 

revendedor,*  retailer 

rezemedor,  *  redeemer 

rompedor,  one  who  breaks 

sostenedor,  sustainer 

tanhedor,  relative,  friend 

tenedor,*  possessor 

ienhedor*  dyer 

tondedor,*  shearer 

valedor,*  defender 


enfranher,  break  (oath,  truce) 

entendre,  attend  to,  court 

esmolre,  grind 

fazer  (for /aire),  make 

fenher,  feign 

fotre,  cohabit 

franker,  break 

jazer,  lie 

jonher,  join  (fight) 
maldizer     (for     maldire),    blas- 
pheme, slander 
malfazer  (for  malfaire),  do  ill 
malvoler,  wish  ill 
mantener,  maintain 
metre,  put 

nozer,  injure 
ofendre,  offend 
penher,  paint 
perdre,  lose 
posezer,  possess 
prendre,  take 
prener,  prendre,  take 
prevezer,  provide 

querre,  seek 

razer  (for  raire),  shave 

respondre,  answer 

revendre,  retail 

rezemer,  redeem 

rompre,  break 

sostener,  sustain 

tanker,  suit 

tener,  hold 

tenker,  dye 

tondre,  shear 

valer,  be  worth,  defend  ( ?) 


1  This  is  the  form  to  be  expected,  but  Levy  can  find  only  enfranhidor. 

2  See  also  hybrids,  p.  578. 


*  In  Raynouiird  with  the  ending  -EIRE. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


51 


vendedor*  vendor  vendre,  sell 

vezedor,]  one  who  sees  vezer,  see 

and  under  -IDOR: 

cauzidor,**  chooser 

colhidor,  one  who  gathers 

complidor,  accomplisher,  executor 

conduzidor,  leader 

consentidor,  one  who  approves  or 

consents 
elegidor,  elector 
enfranhidor^ 
enquizidor,  investigator 
envaidor,  disturber 
esvazidor,  transgressor 
exequidor,  executor 
falhidor,  one  who  fails 
feridor,  one  who  strikes 
forbidor,  sword-cutler 
gandidor,  preserver 
garnidor,  furnisher 
gronhidor,  one  who  murmurs 
regidor,  governor  (of  a  nation) 

The  Latin  suffix  -TOR  which,  as  has  been  seen,- 
became  -AIRE  and  -ADOR  in  verbs  of  the  first  conju- 
gation in  Provengal,  and  -EIRE  and  -EDOR  in  verbs 
of  the  second,  had  a  corresponding  form  -TRIX  for 
feminine  nouns,  as  seen  in  imperator,  emperor,  and  impera- 
trix,  empress.    This  ending  -TRIX  becomes,  in  derivatives 


caiizir,  choose 

colhir,  gather 

complir,  fulfil 

conduzir  (for  conduire),  lead 

consentir,  consent 

elegir,  choose 

enfranhir 

enquizir,  investigate 

envair,  disturb 

esvazir,  transgress 

exequir  or  exsequir,  execute 

falhir,  fail 

ferir,  strike 

forbir,  equip 

gandir,  preserve 

garnir,  furnish 

gronhir,  grumble 

regir,  rule 


I  See  enfranhedor,  p.  50. 


2  P.  36. 


*  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -EIRE. 

**  In  Raynouard  with  the  ending  -IRE. 

t  More  or  less  obscure  words  ending  in  -EDOR  are  doarcdor  and  es- 
trenhedor.  In  the  latter,  both  form  and  meaning  are  doubtful.  Doaredor 
means  "cooper,"  and  is  clearly  connected  with  doga,  stave.  As  in 
doaredor,  the  disappearance  of  the  g  is  seen  in  doela,  a  diminutive  of 
doga,  and  in  doalier,  also  meaning  "cooper,"  and  apparently  formed  on 
dogal,  not  given  in  the  dictionaries.  In  doaredor  there  is  probably  an 
assimilation  of  the  I  to  the  following  r. 


52  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

of  verbs  of  the  first  conjugations,  -AIRITZ,^  and  in  those 
of  the  second,  -EIRITZ.  The  Latin  word  imperatricem, 
therefore,  becomes  the  Provengal  emperairitz.  Then  this 
suffix  -AIRITZ  was  joined  to  verb-stems  to  indicate  a 
female  agent,  just  as  -AIRE  and  -ADOR  had  been  used 
to  indicate  a  male  one,  exactly  the  same  thing  happening 
with  -EIRITZ  in  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation.  Gener- 
ally we  find  the  forms  in  -AIRITZ  existing  beside  the 
forms  in  -ADOR;  but  occasionally  only  the  feminine 
form  is  found,  and  in  a  few  cases  the  masculine  and  the 
feminine  words  have  taken  totally  different  meanings. 
These  words  \vill  be  given  and  treated  in  the  list  which 
follows.-     In  the  first  conjugation  are  found: 

abetairUz,  female  cheat  abelar,  cheat 

avocairitz,^  female  lawyer  avocar,  invoke 

avoutrairitz,  adulteress  avoutrar,  commit  adultery 

badairitz,  woman  who  yawns  badar,  yawn 

balairitz,  female  dancer  balar,  dance 

camjairitz,^  fickle  woman  camjar,  change 

cantairitz,  female  singer  cantar,  sing 

collivairUz,  female  inhabitant  coltivar,  cultivate 

comandairitz,  female  commander  comandar,  command 

contemplairitz,   woman  who  con-  coniemplar,  contemplate 

templates 

degastairilz,  female  spendthrift  degadar,  lay  waste 

empelrairitz,  woman  who  attains  empelrar,  obtain 

encriminairitz,  female  slanderer  encriminar,  incriminate 

enfantairilz,    woman    who    bears  enfantar,  bear  children 

children 

1  Forms  like  -AIRITZ  that  represent  nothing  but  a  Lat.  suffix  (here 
-TRIX,  -TRICEM)  phis  the  stem-vowel  of  a  verb  are  given  as  simple 
suffixes,  though  at  first  sight  they  may  resemble  double  ones.  -AIRITZ, 
for  example,  would  seem  to  resemble  -AIRADA,  -AIRON,  etc. 

2  Words  formed  in  Lat.,  as  cmperairitz<imj)crotricem,  are  of  course 
omitted. 

'  Beside  avocada  with  the  same  meaning;  the  masculine  form  is 
avocat. 

*  The  masculine  form  means  a  money-changer. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


53 


enganairitz,  female  cheat 

engenrairitz,  mother 

entrepreiairitz,  female  interpreter 

filairitz,  female  spinner 

fondairitz^ 

galiairitz,  female  cheat;  prostitute 

gardairitz,  woman  teacher,  gov- 
erness 

gastairitz,  extravagant  woman 

gazanhairitz,  female  farmer 

governairitz,-  governess 

levairitz,^  midwife 

niinistrairitz,  executrix 

mudairitz,  fickle  woman 

orairitz,  intercessor  (?).  (Levy 
gives  no  translation) 

parsonairitz,*  (female)  co-owner 

portairitz,  female  peddler 

sortejairitz,*  sorceress 

trichairitz,'  female  cheat 

venjairitz,  female  avenger 


enganar,  deceive 
engenrar,  engender 
entrepretar,  interpret 
filar,  spin 
fondar,  found 
galiar,  deceive 
gardar,  keep 

gastar,  waste 
gazanhar,  plow 
governar,  govern 
levar,  raise 

ministrar,  administer 
mudar,  change 
orar,  pray 

{parson,  part) 
porlar,  carry 

trichar,  cheat 
venjar,  avenge 


Under  the  suffix  -EIRITZ  there  is  the  following  list : 

defendeiritz,  female  defender  defendre,  defend 

endevezeiritz  ^ 

engeneiritz,''  generator,  mother 

1  The  word  is  not  understood  by  Levy.  It  is  evidently  sonie  legal 
term. 

2  Also  governadora  (p.  42). 

3  The  masculine  form  means  "tax-collector,"  both  forms,  however, 
being  derived  from  levar,  to  raise. 

<  There  are  no  such  verbs  as  parsonar  and  sorlejar,  and  the  word 
sortejairitz  is  a  puzzle  in  form. 

5  It  seems  as  though  the  suffix  -AIRITZ  was  at  this  time  usually 
added  to  verbs  of  bad  meaning.  Thus,  for  example,  abetairitz,  engan- 
airitz, galiairitz,  and  trichairitz,  all  meaning  "female  cheat." 

8  Levy,  who  gives  this  word,  offers  no  translation;  it  is  probably 
from  *endevezir,  a  compound  of  devezir.  It  evidently  denotes  some 
profession,  such  as  escarpeiritz,  and  had  something  to  do  with  wool- 
combing. 

^  No  verb.  Probably  formed  from  the  Prov.  form  of  ingignere,  in 
imitation  of  geneiritz-Cgenetrix ,  derived  from  gignere. 


54  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

cscarpciri'z,  female  wool-comber  escarpir,  slash,  cut 

malfazciritz,^  female  criminal  malfazcr,  do  evil 

menteiritz,  woman  who  lies  vientir,  lie 

ordeiritz,  female  weaver  ordre,  weave 

posczeirilz,  female  owner  posezir,  possess 

Aside  from  -AIRITZ,  this  is  the  ()iil>-  (Icvclopmout  of 
the  Latin  -TRIX  that  it  seems  possible  to  find.  -EIRITZ 
seems  to  be  joined  to  all  stems  except  to  those  of  verbs 
in  -ar,  which  take  -AIRITZ.  Tims  to  verbs  in  -ir,  as 
well  as  to  those  in  -er  and  -re,  the  suffix  -EIRITZ  is 
added. 

Before  leaving  the  Provcngal  suffixes  -ADOR,  -EDOR, 
-I DOR,  there  is  to  be  considered  another  class  of  words 
whicli  do  not  denote  the  agent  at  all,  but  generally  the 
place  in  which  an  action  is  performed,  and  sometimes  the 
instrument  used  in  its  performance.  These  words  will  be 
treated  here  because  of  having  the  same  ending  in  the  mas- 
cuhne  as  the  words  denoting  the  agent  (-ADOR,  -EDOR, 
-IDOR)  although  their  source  is  probably  different.  This 
seems  to  be  the  Latin  suffix  -TORIUS,^  which  was  used  in 
forming  adjectives^  and  joined  to  a  verb-stem,  as  seen  in 
amatoi'ius,  formed  on  amare.  The  next  step  seems  to  have 
been  the  substantive  use  of  the  neuter  form  to  indicate 
a  place,  as  in  dormitorium,  for  example.  Then,  also  in 
Latin,  is  found  the  use  of  the  feminine  form  in  -TORIA  as 
a  noun,  as  in  natatoria,  also  denoting  a  place.  Now,  as 
-A-TORE]\I  certainly  becomes  -ADOR  in  Provengal, 
and  as  these  words  denoting  the  scene  of  an  action  appar- 

>  See  also  hybrids,  p.  578. 

!  This  would  give  -DOR  regularly  in  Prov.,  its  feminine  form  giving 
-DOIRA.     See  Grandgent,  art.  73  (p.  G7). 

>  See  p.  280.  The  suffix  was  probably  originally  formed  by  adding 
the  suffix  -lUS  to  words  ending  in  -TOR  (Cooper,  157).  Prov.,  however, 
regards  (A)-TORIUS  as  a  single  suffix. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


ently  go  back  to  -A-TORIUS,  we  find  these  two  suffixes 
giving  the  same  form  in  Provengal.  In  most  of  the  cases 
in  which  words  in  -DOR  denote  place  or  instrument, 
we  may  declare  the  source  of  the  suffix  -ADOR  to  be  the 
Latin  -A-TORIUM  joined  to  the  verb-stem,  although  a  few 
words  in  the  following  list,  for  various  reasons,  will  call 
for  special  treatment. 


bufador,  hiss,  whistle 
calfador,  kettle 
dinador,  dining-room 
dreisador,  dresser 
eisagador,  outflow 

eisegador,  bail,  guaranty 
escorjador,  place  for  skinning 

animals 
escrasador,    skimmer,     slieing- 

machine 

esgotador,  waste-pipe 
fizansador,  surety,  bail 

intrador,  entry 

legador,  smelting-pot 

mandador,  surety,  bail 

mirador,  mirror 

nozador,^  joining 

obrador,'^  workshop 

parlador,  parlor 

pasador,  passage 

pestador,  pestle 

plegador,  instrument  for  bending 

hoops 
pojador,  flight  of  steps 
pozador,    place    (in  river)  from 

which  water  may  be  drawn 


bufar,  blow 

calfar,  heat 

dinar,  dine 

dreisar,  set  up 

eisegar    (for    eisagar),    flow 

out  ( ?) 
eisegar,  arrange,  divide  ( ?) 
escorjar,  flay 

here  the  only  possible  verb 
appears  to  be  escarrasar,  to 
comb  wool 

esgoiar,  empty  out 

only  fizansa,  the  noun,  is 
found 

intrar,  enter 

legar,  smelt 

mandar,  summon 

mirar,  look  at 

nozar,  knot 

obrar,  work 

parlar,  speak 

pasar,  pass 

peslar,  crush,  stamp 

plegar,  bend 

pojador,  ascend 
pozar,  draw 


^  Nozador  del  col  means  "nape  of  the  neck." 

2  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  579,  lists  this  word  under  -TOR  instead  of  under 
-TORIUM,  which  certainly  appears  incorrect. 


oG  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

rihador,  shore,  bank  ribar,  approach 

lermdor,^  t  terrace  (probably  from 

*lerratorium     for     terrilorium.^ 

There  is  also  a  verb  terror) 

Under  the  suffix  -EDOR,  also,  a  word: 

escorredor,  gutter  escorre,  flow 

Under  -IDOR  there  are  several  words  to  be  added: 

auzidor,  acoustic  duct  ouzir,  hoar 

bolidor,  boiler  bo  hir,  boil 

csclafidor,-  esdatidor,   canal   for 

carrj'ing     away    superfluous 

waters 
folpidor,^  place  where  things  are 

destroyed  or  corrupted 
pestridor,  bakery  (kneading-place)     peslrir,  knead 

Under  the  feminine  endings  -ADOIRA,  -EDOIRA,  are 
found  the  following  words,  coming  from  the  Latin  feminine 
suffix  -TORIA: 

doladoira,  broadax  dolar^  is  not  found  in  Proven^-al 

falcadoira,  mowing  instrument  falcar^  is  not  found  in  Provengal 

1  Sec  Essais,  14.  The  difficulty  consists  in  the  fact  that  there  is  also 
a  form  ierraire.  This  seems,  however,  to  be  a  nominative  form  coined 
by  analogy  with  the  nominative  of  words  in  -ADOR  coming  from  -TOR. 

-  No  verb  is  found. 

'  Also  felpidor.     No  verb  found. 

*  The  Sp.  dolar,  however,  means  "to  cut  wood." 

5  But  the  Fr.  faucher  means  "to  mow." 


fAn  interesting  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  cenador,  upper  story.  The 
usual  Lat.  word  is  cenaculum,  meaning,  first  a  dining-room,  and  then, 
as  these  were  generally  in  the  upper  stories,  the  word  itself  came  to  mean 
an  upper  story.  (See  Smith,  Did.  of  Anliqu.,  I,  665.)  But  cenatorium, 
the  neuter  form  of  the  adjective  cenatorius,  derived  from  cenare,  also 
exists,  and  underwent  the  same  change  of  meaning  that  cenaculum  did. 
Sp.  has  two  interesting  words,  ce7tador<cenatorium,  and  cenadcra< 
cenalaria,  both  meaning  summer-house,  apparently  a  further  develop- 
ment of  meaning.  Dinador,  formed  in  Prov.,  has  only  the  meaning  of 
dining-room.     See  Etym.  Worterb.,  No.  1,808. 

An  obscure  word  in  -ADOR  is  graulador,  plane. 

Dormidor  and  lavador  arc  also  omitted  from  these  lists,  as  they  arc  of 
Lat.  origin. 


Formation  of  Nouns  57 

flamadoira,  fire-shovel  flamar,  flame  up 

foladoira,  fulling-machine  folar,  full 

lansadoira,^  weaver's  shuttle  lansar,^  throw 
libradoira,^  library 

manjadpira,  manger,  crib  manjar,  eat 

podadoira,^  f  pruning-knife  podar,  prune 

And  under  -EDOIRA,  there  is: 

estrenhedoira,  vise  estrenher,  compel 

-ADURA,    -EDURA,    -IDURA 

The  next  group  of  suffixes  in  order  is  the  one  containing 
the  three  forms  -A-DURA,  -E-DURA,  and  -I-DURA,  all 
coming  from  the  Latin  -TURA  joined  to  verb-stems  with 
abstract  force,  the  -A-,  the  -E-,  and  the  -I-  of  the  suffix 
appearing  according  to  the  conjugation  to  which  the  suffix 
was  attached,  as  was  the  case  in  -A-DOR,  -E-DOR, 
-I-DOR  from  the  Latin  -TOR.  Besides  these  regular 
forms,  there  are  a  few  words  in  Provengal  coming  from 
this  suffix  but  probably  formed  on  past  participles  of 
irregular  verbs  in  Latin  when  the  connection  with  the 
original  verb  was  lost.  These  will  be  given  under  -URA."* 
As  for  the  meaning  of  the  Provengal  -ADURA,  etc.,  the 
original  abstract  force  has  been  kept,  and  the  formation 
on  verb-stems  is  likewise  the  same.  There  is,  however, 
a  new  use  also:  the  suffixes  -ADURA,  -EDURA,  -IDURA 

1  See  Romania,  XXXIV,  199.  Thomas  here  compares  the  Prov. 
words  with  the  Engl,  "shuttle,"  in  which  the  basic  idea  is  that  of  throwing 
or  shooting. 

2  There  is  no  verb  on  which  this  is  formed,  but  only  libre,  book.  The 
word  probably  shows  a  change  of  suffix  from  -ARIUM  to  -TORIUM. 

3  See  Romania,  XXXIV,  195. 

*  See  p.  261,  n.  2,  where  a  theorj'  is  given  as  to  the  origin  of  -ADURA. 


t  Another  word  in  -ADOIRA  is  mercadoira,  merchandise,  which 
seems  to  have  come  from  the  Lat.  adjective  mercatorius,  used  sub- 
stantively. 


58 


Word-Formation  in  Provenc^al 


were  added  to  nouns,  where  they  had  regularly  a  collective 
force.     The  list  of  verbal  formations  will  be  given  first: 


Under  -ADURA  are  found: 


afermadura,  guaranty 
ambladura,  ambling  gait 
aplanadura,  smoothness,  polish 
brodadura,  embroidery 
cabadura,  fringe,  valance 
cargadura, load 
casadura,  flogging;  erasure 
cavalcadura,  riding 
cornadura,  blow  with  the  horns 
corratadura,  brokerage 

crebadura,  cranny,  crevice 
cremadura,  burning,  burn 
damnadjira,  damage 
dauradura,  gilding 
delogadura,  displacement 
desboisadura,  sketch,  picture 
deslradura,  measuring 
dobladura,  doubling 
domdadura,  taming 
eiservigadura,  dislocation  of  the 

neck 
empenhadura,  pledge,  security 
empenhoradura,  right  of  mortgage 
endotadura,    hollow,    low    place 

enfladura,  swelling 

1  Stichel,  23. 

-  That  is,  corralar  is  not  found.  The  stem  corral,  however,  is  found 
in  a  number  of  other  words,  as  corratier,  corratatge,  etc.,  which  see,  espe- 
cially corratier  (probably  formed  on  corre,  to  run,  as  in  clamatier,  p.  218), 
The  suffix  here  being  seen,  corral  was  taken  for  the  stem,  and  gave  rise 
to  the  other  formation. 

3  Meaning  originally  "to  carve"  or  "to  chisel,"  but  Levj-  gives  the 
additional  meanings  of  "to  draw"  and  "to  paint." 

*  The  meaning  of  the  infinitive  as  found  in  the  example  is  not  clear, 
but  the  past  participle  certainly  has  the  meaning  "with  dislocated  neck." 

5  See  also  Stichel,  42. 


aferinar,  aflfirm 

amblar,  walk,  amble 

aplanar,  smooth 

brodar,  embroider 

cabar,^  fulfill,  work 

cargar,  load 

casar,  break 

cavalcar,  ride 

cornar,  gore 

(only  corralejar  found),-  deal  in 

horses 
crebar,  burst,  break 
creviar,  burn 
damnar,  injure 
daurar^  gild 
delogar,  displace 
deboisar,  but  also  desboisar^ 
desirar,  measure 
doblar,  double 
domdar,  tame,  lead 
eiservigar,*  ( ?) 


empenhar,  pledge 
empenhorar,  pledge 
enclolar,^      become 

bumps  ( ?)  (L) 
enflar,  swell 


full       of 


Formation  of  Nouns 


59 


engenradura,  progeniture 

entrelinhadura,  interlining 

envezadura,  joy,  gaiety 

escaldadura,  scald,  burn 

escorjadura,  excoriation 

esfasadura,  extinction 

esgardadura,  look,  glance 

esmeradura,  joy 

fermadura,  treaty ;  closing ;  closed 
place 

ferradura,  ron-work  or  trim- 
mings 

ficadura,  nail  marks 

filadura,  material  for  spinning 

fisadura,  sting  (of  animals) 

folhadura,  foliage 

folradura,  fodder,  provisions 

forcadura,  forking 

frapadura,"^  scalloped  hem  of  dress 

frezadura,  embroidery 

gardadura,  look 

gaijadura,  seizure,  distraint 

gensadura,  sweepings 

gitadura,  breaking  open 

grafinadura,  scratch 

grosadura,  copy,  transcript 

laizadura,  stains,  spots 

lauzadura,  tax  on  sales  due  to  lord 

lavadura,  dish-wash 
levadura,  leaven,  yeast  ;^    confine- 
ment 
Had  lira,  clothing,  warp-thread 


engenrar,  engender 

enirelinhar,  interline 

envezar,^  rejoice 

escaldar,  scald 

escorjar,  flay 

esfasar,  efface 

esgardar,  look  at 

esmerar,  adorn,  improve,  shine 

fermar,  close 

ferrar,  bind  with  iron 

ficar,  fix 
filar,  spin 
fisar,  prick 

folhar,  put  forth  leaves 
folrar,  feed,  clothe 
forcar,  fork 
frapar,  strike 
frezar,  embroider 
gardar,  look  at 
gatjar,  pledge 
gensar,^  ornament  ( ?) 
gitar,  throw  (open) 
grafinar,  scratch 
grosar,  engross 
laizar,  soil 

lauzar,    praise,    approve,    ap- 
praise, advise 
lavar,  wash 
levar,  raise 

liar,  bind 


1  Levy  finds  only  envezat,  nierrj-. 

2  Peculiar  meaning.     See  Du  Cange,  frapatura. 

3  Cf.  the  meanings  of  the  other  formations  on  gensar,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, gensum. 

*  This  is  surely  one  of  the  meanings  of  the  word.  •  Mistral  has  leva- 
duro,  meaning  "yeast."  In  the  example  of  the  word  quoted  from  Flam- 
enca,  1.  .307,  Tobler,  in  Herrig's  Archiv,  CX,  464,  suggests  a  correction  to 
alevadura,  with  the  meaning  of  "exaggeration."  This  seems  to  be  the 
meaning,  but  is  it  necessary  to  change  the  form  of  the  word  ? 


GO 


Woun-FoHMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 


limadura,  filings 
inacadiira,  bad  cut  of  cloth 
iHdndadiira,  iiayinouts  for  .suni- 

monses 
mcscladura,  mixture 
tnolhadura,  wetting 
montadura,  mount 
ohradura,  work 

orladura,  hemming  or  trimming 
pagelddura,  measuring 
paradara,  adornment,  decoration 
pa relhad u ra ,  coupling 
parladura,  manner  of  speaking 


lunar,  file 
tuacar,  bruise 
niandar,  sununon 

jiHsclur,  mix 
inolhar,  wet 
montar,  mount 
obrar,  work 
orlar,  hem 
pagdar,  measure 
parar,  adorn 
panihar,  couple 
parlar,  speak 


penhoraduras,  tax  paid  on  a  seizure    penhorar,  seize 


pergadura,  tax  paid  to  the  "per- 

gador" 
plaid ej ad  lira,  pleading,  speech 
plegadura,  curvature,  pliability 
raionadura,^  rat -gnawing 
sacrifiadiira,  sacredness;   thing 

sacrificed 
.mladura,  salting 
tempradura,  tcmporization 
Irencadura,  act  of  canceling 
versifiadura,  versification 
violadura,  playing  of  the  viola 

Under  -EDURA  are  the  following  words: 

cozedura,  sewing 
escoisendura,  tear 
fazedura,  restoration,  recovery 
fendedura,  crack 
franhedura,  breaking 
molendura,^  miller's  pay 
mordedura,  bite 


pergar,  measure    (the    pergador 

being  a  measurer) 
plaidejar,  plead 
plegar,  bend 

sacrijiar,  sacrifice 

salar,  salt 
temprar- 
Irencar,  cut 
versifiar,  versify 
violar,  play  the  viola 


cozer,  sew 

escoisendre,  tear 

fazcr  (for /aire),  make,  restore 

fctidre,  crack 

franher,  break 

moire,  grind 

mordre,  bite 


»  No  verl)  found;    sec;  formations  on  nouns  and  p.  62,  n.  4,  below. 

=  This  verb  is  found  only  with  the  meanings  of  "  temper"  and  "dip." 
but  the  existence  of  a  temprar,  to  temporize,  from  temporare  on  tempiis 
seems  probable.  Temporare  with  this  meaning  is  indeed  given  in  Du 
Cange.  Fr.,  and  through  it,  Engl.,  have  added  -IZARE  instead  of  -ARE 
to  the  noun  designating  "time." 

'  We  should  expect  moledura. 


Formation  of  Nouns  61 

ponhedura,  pricking,  prick  ponher,  prick 

premedura,  kind  of  poor  wine  premer,  press 

rompedura,  fracture  rompre,  break 

and  under  -IDURA: 

holidura,  boiling  bolir,  boil 

colhidura,  crop,  harvest  colhir,  gather 
devestidura,  withdrawal  of  endow-    devestir,  divest 

ment 

envestidura ,^  investiture  envestir,  invest 

esnieutidura,  dung  esmeutir,  defecate 

floridura,  spreading  florir,  flourish 

garnidura,  furnishing  garnir,  furnish 

mozidura,  moldiness  mozir,  become  moldy 
noiridura,  food ;  education ;  family     noirir,  nourish 

partidura,  fragment  partir,  divide 

poiridura,  rottenness  poirir,  rot 

vestidura,  clothing  vestir,  clothe 

In  the  words  ending  in  -EDURA  and  -IDURA,  then, 
the  meaning  seems  to  be  nearly  always  purely  abstract, 
and  the  formations  are  all  perfectly  regular.  Among  the 
words  in  -ADURA,  on  the  other  hand,  the  collective  idea 
seems  to  have  crept  in  in  such  words  as  ficadura,  folhadura, 
gensadura,  grafinadura,  laizadura,  lavadura,  and  limadura. 
Most  of  these  words  must  have  been  formed  on  verbs, 
though  some  of  them,  as,  for  example,  folhadura,  might 
have  been  formed  on  either  noun  or  verb.  The  next 
step  was  the  addition  of  the  suffix  to  nouns  with  no  corre- 
sponding verb-stem,  and  generally  giving  a  collective 
force.     Such  formations  are  seen  in: 

auradura,^  folly  aura,  air 

botonadura,  set  of  buttons  baton,  button 

cabelhadura,  head  of  hair  cabelh,  hair 

carnadiira,  flesh  cam,  flesh 

1  Investitura  is  in  Du  Cange. 

^  Auratura,  gilding,  is  found  in  the  inscriptions  (see  Olcott,  53), 
but  this  is  connected  with  aurum,  gold,  whereas  the  present  word,  mean- 
ing airiness,  lightness,  is  clearly  formed  on  aura,  air. 


62  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

fi'iiifidura,  iiiaiiurc-pilo  fctn,  manure 

fliimndura,  kind  of  plant  flama,  flame 

lelradura,  lettering  on  coin  lelra,  letter 

lobadura^  loba,  wolf 

inachacoladura,-  machicolation  machacol,  machicolation 

mcrcadura,  business,  commerce  mere,  merchandise 

pageladura,^  small  house  ( ?)  pagela,  dialect 

pczadura,  footprint  pe,  foot 

rolonndura,^  rat-gnawing  ralon,  rat 

tcladiira,  canvas  tela,  cloth 

-AIRE 

Aside  from  the  list  of  words  in  -AIRE  with  the  object- 
case  -ADOR  (under  which  heading  the  words  have  been 
given),  derived  from  -A-TOR,  and  denoting  the  agent, 
there  are  several  other  words  with  an  entirely  different 
meaning  which  cannot  be  traced  to  the  Latin  -TOR,''  but 
must  be  derived  from  -ARIUM,  which  would  phonetically 
give  -AIRE.  The  complete  list  will  be  given,  although 
most  of  the  words  were  pretty  certainly  formed  in  Latin: 

doaire,  dowry 

eiviaire,  intention  esviar,  eiviar  (?),  send 

fruchaire,  fruit-tree  fruch,  fruit 

luminaire,  light 

notaire,  notary 

obraire,  workshop  obra,  work 

pezaire,  scales  pezar,  weigh 

plantaire,  plantain  planta,  plant 

pozaire,  bucket  for  drawing  water     pozar,  draw 

1  Levy  gives  no  meaning  for  lobadura.  It  is  evidently  connected 
with  an  adjective  lobat,  also  unexplained,  and  is  used  several  times  in 
describing  horses. 

2  See  also  hybrids,  p.  578,  for  machacolamen. 

3  The  meaning  of  the  suffix  here  it  seems  impossible  to  explain. 
Raynouard's  citations  are  too  short  to  be  certain  that  his  translations  for 
both  words  arc  correct.  In  other  examples  the  word  means  "measuring." 
See  p.  60. 

*  From  its  meaning  this  should  be  formed  on  a  verb.  Ralonar  is 
not  found  in  Prov.,  but  is  in  Sp. 

'  For  two  words  in  -AIRE  denoting  the  agent  of  an  action  and 
derived  from  -TOR,  see  p.  48,  n.  1. 


Formation  of  Nouns  63 

The  usual  development  of  -ARIUS,  -ARIUM,  however, 
was  -lER,  under  which  heading  the  suffix  will  be  treated 
in  detail.  These  words  would  therefore  be  exceptional, 
although  not  phonetically  irregular.  It  seems  probable 
that  none  of  them  are  Provengal  formations,  but  that  they 
are  derived  from  Latin  words  in  -ARIUS  or  -ARIUM. 
Doaire  appears  to  go  back  to  *dotarium  (which  is  in  Du 
Cange  as  dotalis,  found  also  in  classic  Latin).  Luminaire 
is  from  luminarimn,  notaire  from  notarius,  obraire  from 
operarium,  plantaire  from  plantarius  (apparently  confused 
in  meaning  with  plantago),  pozaire  from  putearium.  Fru- 
chaire<ifructuarium  exists  beside /ruc/iier,  probably  a  Pro- 
vengal formation.  Eiviaire  is  not  clear.  Pezaire  is  the 
only  word  in  -AIRE  from  -ARIUM  that  really  resembles 
a  Provengal  formation,  but  it  also  is  probably  Latin. 

-AL 

The  Provengal  suffix  -AL  is  from  the  Latin  -ALE,  which 
is,  in  turn,  a  substantive  form  of  the  adjective  suffix 
-ALIS.^  In  most  of  the  derived  words  which  have  any 
difference  of  meaning  at  all  from  the  simple  forms,  the 
original  adjective  use  seems  clear.  For  example,  in 
fogal,  a  hearth,  it  seems  as  though  loc  fogal,  or  something 
similar,  might  be  understood.  In  the  same  way  the  words 
denoting  all  of  the  pieces  of  armor  and  articles  of  dress 
might  have  been  formed — that  is,  each  piece  would  be 
thought  of  as  a  covering  for  the  eyes,  the  nose,  or  the  thighs 
{olhal,  nazal,  cuichal).  Then,  next,  the  adjective  would 
be  used  without  the  noun,  and  finally  the  adjective  use 
was  forgotten.  In  this  way  it  may  come  about  that  there 
are  so  many  pairs  of  words — a  form  with  the  suffix  -AL 

1  The  neuter  plural  of  this  suffix,  -ALIA,  gave  the  Prov.  -ALHA. 

See  p.  77. 


64  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

and  one  without  it,  in  which  there  is  no  perceptible  differ- 
ence of  meaning — as  in  centenal,  ronhonal,  and  rozal 
existing  beside  centena,  ronhon,  and  ros.  Although  Levy 
corrects  some  of  Raynouard's  wortls,  and  thus  shows 
a  difference  of  meaning — for  example  between  banc  and 
hancal  or  dent  and  dental,  which  had  precisely  the  same 
meaning  in  Raynouard — the  word  with  a  suffix  showing 
no  difference  in  meaning  from  the  simple  word  is  still 
common.  It  seems  probable  that  this  forceless  use  was 
the  latest  development  of  meaning  that  the  suffix 
assumed.  The  first  meanings  were  probably  those  of 
place,  as  in  Jogal  and  hoal,  and,  more  usually  still, 
of  objects  of  dress, ^  particularly  pieces  of  armor,  as 
hocal,  brasal,  cambal,  cuichal,  dedal,  nazal,  and  olhal,  for 
in  all  of  these  the  original  adjective  use  is  discernible.  It 
was  probably  only  after  the  nouns  with  which  they  were 
used  had  disappeared  and  had  been  forgotten,  and 
the  original  force  was  no  longer  clear,  that  the  suffixes, 
used  more  freely,  gave  no  clear  development  of  meaning 
to  the  word  to  which  they  were  attached.  There  are  also 
several  cases  of  words  in  -AL  beside  Avhich  no  simple 
word  can  be  found,  but  they  are  prol)ably  all  Latin  forma- 
tions. Those,  however,  which  are  not  actually  found  in 
Latin  are  given  in  the  list  and  treated  in  the  notes.  The 
suffix  seems  to  be  attached  only  to  nouns : 

agraral,-  cultivated  field  agrier,  field-tithe 

avespral,  evening  avespre,  evening 

hancal,  carpet  for  a  bench  banc,  bench 

«  Meyer-Liibke  (II,  524)  states  that  this  use  of  the  suffix  was  com- 
mon in  Lat. 

2  This  noun,  if  it  exists  as  a  noun,  is  only  the  adjective  agraral, 
plowable,  used  substantively.  Agrairalis,  plowable,  is  found  in  Du 
Cange,  and  agrairal  is  the  form  that  we  should  expect  for  Prov.,  in 
accordance  with  the  otherwords  that  end  in  -AIR  plus  a  suffix  (-AIRADA, 
-A IRON,  etc.).     -ARAL,   both  here   and    in  fumaral,  given    below,  is 


Formation  of  Nouns 


65 


bezal,^  acqueduct,  drain 

boal,  ox-stall 

bocal,  mouth-hole  in  helmet 

brasal,  armpiece 

cabal,  capital,  power 

cambal,  gaiter 

carral,  roadway  for  wagons 

cazal,-  a  kind  of  farmhouse 

centenal,  hundred 

corral,^  free,  open  space 

costal,  hill,  side  of  fort 

coisal  {cuichal),  thigh-plate 

dedal,  thimble 

denairal,'^  a  penny's  worth 

deptal,  rent,  tribute 

especial,  spice-seller 

farinal,  flour-dust 

feiral,  market-place 

fenestral,  window;  also  wing  of 
window 

ferratjal,*  field  planted  with  fod- 
der 

feual  (feuzal),  vassal 

fogal,  hearth,  fire-place 

foratal,^  foreigner,  stranger 

fromental,  kind  of  pear 


bou,  ox 
boca,  mouth 
bratz,  arm 
cap,  head 
camba,  leg 
carra,  car 
caza,  house 
centena,  hundred 
cor  re  (?),  to  run 
costa,  side 
coisa,  thigh 
del,  finger 
denier,  penny 
depte,  debt 
especia,  spice 
farina,  flour 
feira,  fair,  market 
fenestra,  window 

ferratje,  fodder 

feu,  fief 
foe,  fire 
for,  out  of 
fromen{t),  wheat 


very  hard  to  explain,  although  -ARIS  instead  of  -ARIUS  would  give  the 
form  we  find.  But  Du  Cange's  agrairalis  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
a  form  in  -AIRAL  had  existed  in  Prov.  Both  agralis  and  agrarius 
existed  in  Lat.,  and  agraralis  seems  to  be  a  combination  of  the  two  forms 
(see  double  suffixes,  p.  398,  n.  1).  A  similar  kind  of  formation  in  -AIRIL 
is  fromentairil  (see  p.  69,  n.  1). 

1  A  simple  word  beso  is  found  in  Modern  Prov.  Thomas  {Nouv. 
Ess.,  127)  finds  its  source  in  a  Germanic  hadi. 

2  Of  Lat.  origin.     Cf.  the  O.Fr.  chesal  and  the  Sp.  and  Port,  casal. 

3  This  word  is  the  only  probable  example  of  a  formation  in  -AL  on  a 
verb. 

*  See  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

6  See  also  double  suffixes.  As  for  foratal,  it  exists  beside  foratan 
and  also  the  simpler  adjective  forms  foral  and  foran.  It  seems  to  be 
an  adjective  used  substantively. 


66 


Word-Formation  in  Proven(,'al 


fruchal,  harvest;  fruit  garden 

fumaral,^  chimney,  flue 

gaudal,  bowl  (?) 

grosal,  coarse  wheat  ( ?) 

joial,  prize  (?),  present  (?) 

jornal,  day's  work,  day's  pay, 
etc. 

liural,  scales;  a  grain-measure 

menestairal,^  artisan 

menestral,  artisan 

mercadal,  market-place 

minal,  measure  of  capacity 

molinal,  place  fit  for  building 
mills,  or  one  on  which  mills  are 
built 

vionjal,  nun 

mostral,^  sign,  mark 

nazal,  nosepiece 

7iervial,  nerve 

olhal,  eyehole 

omhral,'^  shade,  penthouse 

orlal,   garden;  gardening;   pot- 
herb 

paredal,  supporting  wall  • 

pezal,  weight 

pilasal,^  pestle 

pogezal,^'*  kind  of  measure 

pojal,  hill,  ascent 

porcal,  pig,  sow 

portal,  portal 

pradal,  meadow 

prebostal,  courthouse 

presal,  mark  at  which  quoit  is 
thrown 

ribal,  shore 

ronhonal,  kidney 

rozal,  dew 

ruscal,  hull,  shell 


fnicJi,  fruit 

gaitda,  dish 
gros,  coarse 
joia,  jewel 
jorn,  day 

liura,  pound 
menestier,  trade 
menestre,  servant 
mercat,  market 
rnina,  a  weight 
violin,  mill 


monja,  nun 
mostra,  sign 
nas,  nose 
nervi,  nerve 
olh,  eye 
ombra,  shade 
.art,  garden 

paret,  wall 
peza,  weight 
pila,  pestle 

poi,  hill 
pore,  pig 
porta,  gate 
prat,  meadow 
prebost,  provost 
presa,  quoit 

riba,  bank 
ronhon,  kidney 
ros,  dew 
rusca,  bark 


1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

2  Found  also  with  -ALH. 

'  See  also  p.  401  for  other  double  suffixes  beginning  with  -AS, 
*  Pogezal  is  simply  an  adjective  used  substantively. 


Formation  of  Nouns  67 

sanctoral,  book  of  saints  sanctor,  saints 

semal,^  kind  of  bowl  or  vat  sem,  sowing 

sestairal,^  measure  of  capacity  sestier,  a  measure 

v&irial,]  glass  windows  veiria,  glass 

-IL 

With  -AL  from  -ALE,  the  neuter  form  of  the  adjective 
-ALIS,  used  in  making  nouns  in  Provengal,  may  be  treated 
the  suffix  -IL,  arising,  similarly,  from  -ILE,  the  neuter  form 
of  the  adjective  -ILIS.^  Again,  the  adjective  use  which 
these  nouns  had  originally  seems  to  have  given  the  idea 
of  place  for  a  thing,  but  with  a  different  specialization  of 
meaning  from  that  seen  in  -AL.     The  latter  seems  to 

1  I.e.,  a  thing  for  seed.  Found  only  in  the  Croisade  contre  les  Albi- 
geois.  Du  Cange  gives  semalis,  one  of  his  examples  being  taken  from  a 
Lat.  chronicle  of  this  crusade.  A  Lat.  seminalis  also  exists,  but  semal 
may  be  a  Prov.  formation. 

2  See  also  double  sufRxes,  p.  398. 

»  For  -ILHA,  from  -ILIA,  the  neuter  plural  of  -ILIS,  see  p.  80. 


t  A  good  many  words  ending  in  -AL,  but  not  formed  in  Prov.,  are 
to  be  observed:  (a)  words  clearly  formed  in  Lat.:  canal,  canalKcanalis; 
cervigal,  &\i\i\\<cervicalis;  clergal,  clerh  Kclericalis;  coronal,  forehead- 
bone  <  coronal's;  dental,  axle-tree  of  si  plow Kdentalium  (we  should  expect 
dentalh);  estadal,  taper Kstatalis,  instead  of  statarius,  standing;  final, 
endKfinalis;  frontal,  fagade,  also  altar-cloth </rontaZe;  ivernal,  winter 
crop  K  hibernalis ;  leial,  wine  nieasure  <  Ze{;aZis,  legal;  logal,  dwelling  < 
localis;  majal,  pig  <.  rnajalis ;  maestral,  north  <  magistralis ;  mecinal, 
medicine-book  <  medicinalis;  ostal,  lodging  <  hospitalis;  perdigal,  par- 
tridgeK per dicalis  (given  also  under  -ALH) ;  and  peitral,  breast-strap 
of  a  horse<pecto?-aZis.  All  of  these  words  seem  to  be  adjectives  used 
substantively. 

(6)  Words  coming  from  forms  probably  existing  in  Lat. :  anoal,  All 
Souls'  Msiss<a7iniialis  (because  celebrated  every  year);  barral,  barrel 
(Du  Cange  gives  barrale) ;  coral,  a  kind  of  ship  (see  Du  Cange,  corale) ; 
citoal  or  citoar,  zedoary  (Du  Cange  gives  zedoari). 

(c)  Words  in  which  the  ending  is  not  a  Prov.  suffix,  but  is  of  other 
than  Prov.  origin:  estival,  boot;  gazal,  prostitute;  manescal,  blacksmith- 
and  mayigonal,  mangle.  Estival  looks  like  a  deformation  of  the  Germanic 
Stiefel.  Gazal  seems  to  be  of  Celtic  origin  (see  Korting,  No.  4,107,  and 
Romania,  II,  237).  Manescal  is  from  a  Germanic  mareschalc.  Mangonal 
may  have  been  formed  in  Prov.,  but  probably  comes  from  a  Lat. 
*mangonalis. 


68  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

have  generally  given  the  meaning  of  place  for  the  parts 

of  the  l)0(ly  in  Latin — that  is,  objects  of  dress  and  pieces 

of  armor — whereas  -ILE  in  Latin  seems  to  have  meant  a 

stable  or  shed — that  is,  a  place  for  animals.     Meyer- Liibke^ 

gives  a  list  of  words  that  had  this  meaning  in  Latin,  and 

there  are  some  new  words  of  this  kind  found,  but  most  of 

the  words  show  a  less  specialized  meaning.     Some  of 

them  denote  place  in  a  more  general  way,  whereas  most  of 

them  show  little  difference  of  meaning  from  the  simple 

noun  on  which  they  are  based,  as  was  the  case  wath  some 

words  in  -AL  originally  adjective.     One  or  two  of  the 

words   tend    toward    collective    force — carnil,    camhril — 

and  a  few  seem  to  be  formed  on  verbs,  although  still 

retaining  the  meaning  of  place. 

The  new  formations  that  have  any  trace  of  the  meaning 

of  a  barn  or  shed  are: 

bordil,  barn  borda,  house 

fenasil,-  haystack  {fenas  not  found),  fen,  hay 

fornil,  bakehouse  or  -room  forn,  oven 

porcil,  pigstye  pore,  pig 

In  the  other  words  that  are  found,  no  trace  at  all  of 
this  meaning  is  visible.  The  words  showing  little  differ- 
ence of  meaning  from  the  simple  word,  or  in  which  the 
original  adjective  force  is  otherwise  clear,  are  as  follows: 

agacil,  ambush  agach,  agaze,  ambush 

camsil,  hempen  cloth  cainisa  (?),  shirt 

capil,  gable,  housetop  cap,  top,  head 

clapil,  heap  clap,  heap 

costil,  couch,  bed  casta,  side 

eslatgil,   a  feudal  obUgation,   ac-  estatge,  dwelling 

cording  to  Raynouard,  though 

Levy  questions  the  meaning 

■  II,  .526. 

2  Fenil  also  exists,  but  is  not  a  Prov.  formation,  coming  from  the  Lat. 
fenile.     For  fenasil,  see  double  suffixes,  p.  401. 


Formation  of  Nouns  69 

mercadil,  market-place  mercat,  market 

navigil,  ship  naveg,  ship 

nazil,  band   or   cloth  before  the     nas,  nose 

face;  has  the  kind  of  meaning 

so  common  in  words  in  -AL 

derived    from    adjectives,    an 

article  of  clothing 
atil,  truce,  agreement  ■pati,  truce 

peatgil,  toll-post;   or  land  where     peatge,  toll 

toll  is  asked 
polpil,  fleshy  part  polpa,  flesh,  muscle 

ramil,  branch  ram,  branch 

tendil,  tent  tenda,  tent 

vergil,  f  rod  verga,  rod 

The  words  mentioned  above  as  showdng  a  kind  of  col- 
lective force  are  probably  also  merely  adjectives  used  sub- 
stantively.    Such  are: 

camhril,  wainscoting  ( ?)  cambra,  room 

carnil,  carrion  cam,  flesh 

Camhril,  however,  in  Modern  Provengal  as  given  by  Mis- 
tral, means /'small  room."^ 

Other  words  that  seem  to  have  diminutive  force  exist 
also,  and  this  meaning  is  harder  to  explain  in  a  suffix 
which  originally  simply  formed  adjectives  on  nouns.  Some 
of  these  words  are  also  spelled  -ILH,  and  this  form  may  be 
derived  from  -ICULUM,  a  regular  diminutive  suffix — 
thus  dozilQi),  faucet,  and  hranquilih),  small  branch,  from 
hranc — as  there  is  great  confusion  between  words  in 
-AL  and  -ALH,  -EL  and  -ELH,  -IL  and  -ILH,  or  the  pala- 
talized and  the  unpalatalized  I.     Fontanil,  small  fountain, 

'  Possibly  due  to  a  confusion  of  -IL  and  -ILH. 


t  A  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  mandil,  napkin,  mantle,  from  mantile. 

A  word  ending  in  the  double  suffix  -AIRIL  is  fromentairil,  from 
fromenif).  Cf.  the  words  in  -AIRAL  given  on  p.  398,  and  see  also  p.  64, 
n.  2.     For  commentaries  on  the  word,  see  Romania,  XXXVII,  113;  444. 


70  Word-Formation  in  Pro\en(,'al 

is  another  of  these  (Uinimitive  words.  We  find  also  fon- 
tanilhd  hut  no  Jontanilh.  The  word  seems  to  represent 
another  confusion  between  -IL<-ILIS  and  -IL(H)< 
-ICULUM.     Other  diminutives  in  -IL  are: 

maionil,  farmhouse  maio{n),  house 

pontil,  small  bridge  'pon{t),  bridge 

On  verbs  we  find  the  following  words  still  keeping 
apparently  the  meaning  of  place,  though  showing  a  tend- 
ency toward  abstract  force  in  auzil: 

auzil,^  ear,  hearing  aiizir,  hear 

badil,  watch-tower  ( ?)  badar,  watch,  gape  at 

corril,  way,  road  correr,  run 

eisartilj't  bit  of  arable  land  eisartar,  make  arable 

A  word  formed,  apparently,  on  an  adjective  is: 

planil,  flat  country  ( ?)  plan,  flat 

-alh(a),  -elh(a),  -ilh(a),  -olh(a),  -ulh(a) 

The  suffixes  of  the  next  group,  -ALH(A),  -ELH(A), 
-ILH(A),  -OLH(A),  and  -ULH(A),  are  certainly  extremely 
puzzling  to  deal  with  from  many  points  of  view^  The 
suffix  -ALH  evidently  comes  from  the  Latin  neuter  suffix 
-ACLUM,  which  was  added  to  verb-stems,  and  appears 
to  have  no  clearly  defined  meaning  in  later  formations, 

1  Another  word,  auzil,  birds,  has  only  an  apparent  suffix  -IL,  as  the 
word  really  comes  from  avicelli,  the  i  being  due  to  the  analogy  of  cabiK 
capilli,  in  which  a  phonetically  regular  close  e  had  become  i  under  the 
influence  of  the  following  long  i.     See  Grandgent,  art.  28,  note  3. 


t  Other  words  ending  in  -IL,  but  not  of  Prov.  origin,  are  ganguil  and 
letril.  For  ganguil,  hinge,  see  Korting,  No.  1,817,  and  Diez,  374.  The 
word  seems  to  come  from  the  Gr.  x^yx^^o^.  and  Korting  supplies  a 
Lat.  intermediary,  *canchalus.  Ganguil,  dragnet,  is  of  obscure  origin. 
Letril,  reading-desk,  is  from  the  Lat.  leclorile  (Korting,  No.  5,503). 

Espil,  mirror,  should  likewise  be  mentioned  here.  Its  source  is  the 
Lat.  speculum,  the  suffix  -IL  being  therefore  only  apparent.  Speculurn, 
phonetically,  should  give  espelh,  which  is  likewise  found. 


Formation  of  Nouns  71 

although  originally  it  served  to  designate  the  instrument,^ 
as  in  governalh<gubernaculum.  Occasionally  the  suffix 
appears  to  be  added  to  nouns  without  bringing  any 
noticeable  change  of  meaning,  and  here  it  seems  as  though 
the  form  -ACL A  were  used  in  one  or  two  words.  Next, 
there  is  the  suffix  -ELH(A)  from  -ECLUS  or  -ICLUS, 
and  a  suffix  -ILH(A)  from  -ICLUS.  These  suffixes  from 
-ICLUS  and  -ICLUS  Avere  early  confused,  and  forms 
representing  different  suffixes  are  found  in  the  develop- 
ments of  the  same  word  among  the  various  Romance  lan- 
guages. In  Provengal,  the  forms  in  -ELH  appear  to  be 
the  commoner,  most  of  the  forms  in  -ILH  either  going  back 
to  Latin  or  being  hard  to  explain,  and  probably  coming 
from  some  other  source  than  -ICLUS.  The  meaning 
which  the  suffixes  had  in  Latin,  which  is  also  usually  found 
in  Provengal,  is  diminutive,  though  often  their  addition 
brings  no  change  of  meaning  to  the  simple  word,  as  the 
diminutive  force  was  lost.  There  is  also  a  Latin  suffix 
-tJCLUS  attached  to  stems  in  u-,  and  it  is  found  in  the 
Provengal  -OLH(A)  in  several  words,  although  most 
of  them  seem  to  have  been  formed  in  Latin,  and  some  of 
the  words  with  the  ending  have  other  sources.  The 
ending  -ULH(A),  from  -UCLUS,  appears  to  be  found 
only  in  agulha<acucla,  a  Latin  formation.  There  is  one 
more  word  ending  in  -U^LHA — escapulha — but  it  does  not 
appear  to  represent  the  suffix  -UCLUS. 

Some  of  the  difficulties  in  treating  the  suffix  are  as  fol- 
lows: In  the  first  place,  the  I  of  the  suffixes  -AL  and  -EL 
is  sometimes  palatalized  and  written  -ALH  and  -ELH, 
as,  for  example,  we  find  cortal  and  cortalh.  In  such  a 
case  as  this,  it  does  not  appear  as  though  the  noun  cort 
were  given  a  suffix  in  -ALE  and  another  one  in  -ACLUM, 

1  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  510-15. 


72  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

but  rather  that  the  /  is  palatahzecP  in  one  case  and  not  in 
the  other.  This  palatalization  often  makes  it  difficult  to 
recognize  the  suffix  added,  which  has  to  be  determined 
often  by  the  meaning  given  to  the  simple  word  by  its 
addition.  The  greatest  difficulty,  however,  is  caused  by 
the  identity  of  form  of  the  suffixes  -ALHA<-ACLA,  and 
-ALHA<-ALIA;  also  -ILHA<-ICLA,  and  -ILHA  from 
-ILIA.-  -ALIA  and  -ILIA  are  plural  suffixes  generally 
forming  collective  nouns,  often  with  a  touch  of  contempt, 
as  in  gorinalha  and  ribaudalha,  both  meaning  "rabble." 
Generally,  the  original  suffix  can  be  traced  by  the  meaning 
of  the  derived  word,  but  occasionally  this  is  difficult. 
Besides  the  neuter  plural  forms  -ALIA  and  -ILIA,  the 
singular  forms  -ALIUM  and  -ILIUM  were  used,  becoming 
the  masculine  -ALH  and  -ILH  in  Provengal,  and  complet- 
ing the  confusion  with  -ACLUM  and  -ICLUM. 

The  words  in  which  -ALH  represents  -ACLUM  and 
is  attached  to  Provengal  verb-stems  to  form  nouns  denoting 
the  instrument  for  the  performance  of  an  action  will  be 
given  first. 

ajiblalh,  clasp,  buckle  afiblar,  clasp 

amagatalh,^  hiding-place  amagar,  hide 
apogalh,    support    (correction    of     apojar,  support 

Raynouard's  pogalh,  wrist) 

batalh,  clapper,  hammer  batre,  beat 

defendalh,  intrenchment  defendre,  defend 
devendalh,^  fan 

I  Possibly  through  the  influence  of  -ALHA,  from  -ALIA. 

=  As  the  Prov.  form  of  these  suffixes  of  different  origin  is  the  same, 
they  are  given  together.  It  would  be  more  strictly  logical  to  give  -ALHA 
and  -ILHA  under  -AL  and  -IL. 

» We  should  expect  amagalh.    See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

*  This  word  is  peculiar  in  several  ways.  It  seems  to  represent  a 
Lat.  *deventaculum.  Deventar  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  the  verb  being 
esventar,  corresponding  to  the  Fr.  eventer,  on  which  eventail  was  formed. 
The  word  is  peculiar  also  in  being  written  with  a  d  instead  of  a  t  (deven- 
talh  not  found).  The  d  appears  to  be  due  to  the  analogy  of  some  other 
word,  possibly  benda,  venda,  band. 


Formation  of  Nouns  73 

eisugalh,  veil  with  ends  to  dry       eisugar,  dry 

tears 

espantalh,  scarecrow  espantar,  scare 

espaventalh,  scarecrow  espaventar,  scare 

fermalh,  buckle  fermar,  close 

mosiralh,  sign,  mark  mostrar,  show 

muralh,  rampart  murar,  wall  up 

sonalh,  bell  sonar,  ring 

sospiralh,  airhole  sospirar,  breathe,  sigh 

ventalhjt  airhole  ventar,  blow 

Next,  there  are  several  words  ending  in  -x4.LH  and 
-ALHA  which  do  not  appear  to  be  formed  on  any  Proven- 
cal verbs  that  are  to  be  found,  yet  which  do  not  appear  to 
have  the  collective  idea  which  -ALIA  as  a  source  would 
give.     These  words  will  be  taken  up  individually. 

arenalh,  sand-beach :  Although  only  the  form  with  the 
ending  -ALH  is  found,  the  suffix  added  appears  to  be  -ALE 
and  not  -ACLUM.  Compare,  for  example,  the  Italian 
arenale  and  the  Spanish  arenal. 

brazalh,  coal-fire,  from  hraza,  embers:  This  word  ap- 
pears to  be  formed  on  a  noun,  which  must  be  the  case 
unless  the  verb  *brazar  be  assumed.  It  is  found  in  com- 
pounds, such  as  abrazar  and  embrazar,  and  Korting  gives 
the  verb  as  existing  in  Rhaeto-Romance.^ 

caisalh,  jaw-tooth,  from  cais,  cheek:  This  word  really 
appears  to  be  formed  on  the  noun,  there  being  no  verb 
on  which  it  could  be  formed.  -ALH  may  possibly  rep- 
resent here  the  neuter  singular  suffix  -ALIUM,  which  is 
occasionally  found  in  Romance  words. 

cortalh,  fortification  (  ?),  from  cori,  court:   This  appears 

•  See  brasa,  No.  1,546.  The  Etym.  Worterb.  also  gives  examples  of 
such  a  verb. 


fProv.  words  formed  in  Lat.  are:  miralh  (Olcott,  132,  miraculum) ; 
espiralh<spiraculum,  and  serralhKserraculutn.  Escalh,  splinter,  also 
is  not  a  Prov.  formation  (see  Korting,  No.  8,763,  skalja).  The  source 
of  mosclalh,  fish-hook,  seems  obscure. 


74  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

to  be  nothing  oilier  than  the  word  cortal,  about  the  meaning 
of  which  there  is  some  doubt. ^  Possibly  it  is  the  same  as 
costal,  which  has  the  meaning  of  "fortification." 

onibralh,  shade,  from  ombra,  shadow:  Here  we  appear 
to  .have  the  suffix  ALH<-ACLUM  added  to  a  noun. 
Ombralh,  however,  probably  comes  from  umbraculum,  a 
late  Latin  formation,  and  was  probably  formed  on  the 
stem  of  umhrare. 

peiralh,  stony  place,  i^avement:  Seems  to  have  been 
formed  on  peira,  stone,  by  means  of  -ALH,  from  -ALIUM. 

perdigalh,  a  young  partridge:  Here  the  suffix  seems  to 
be  -ACLUM  and  to  denote  the  young  of  an  animal,  a 
meaning  which  it  has  in  Italian, ^  though  no  other  example 
of  such  a  meaning  is  found  in  Provengal.  The  word  is 
also  found  spelled  perdigal,^  which,  however,  goes  back  to 
the  Latin  adjective  perdicalis.  The  only  simple  word 
meaning  ''partridge"  in  Provengal  is  perdiz. 

trebalh,  work:  In  this  word  the  ending  -ALH  does  not 
appear  to  represent  any  suffix  at  all.  Trebalh  was  at  first 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  trabaculum,  together  with  tra- 
vail and  the  other  Romance  words  meaning  "work."  On 
account  of  the  e  in  the  initial  syllable,  however,  Thomas* 
objected  to  this  derivation,  and  suggested  as  source  tre- 
palium,  meaning  "an  instrument  of  torture." 

The  next  group  of  words  contains  those  ending  in 
-ELH(A)  and  -ILH(A),  which  represents  -ECLUS  or 
-ICLUS,  and  -ICLUS.  With  respect  to  meaning,  they  are 
hard  to  classify.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  diminu- 
tive value,  but  in  most  the  derived  word  shows  little 
change  of  meaning.'' 

»  See  "Levy,  cortal,  I,  384.  '  P.  G7,  n.  f. 

2  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  511.  *  Romania,  XVII,  421. 

'  Probably  originally  diminutive.  The  derived  word  shows  the 
usual  loss  of  force. 


Formation  of  Nouns  75 

The  words  ending  in  -ELH  follow: 

arborelh,^  shrub  arbre,  tree 

calmelh,"  heath,  plain  calm,  heath 

fadelh,  fool  fat,  fool 

fornelh,  hearth  forn,  oven 

jupelh,  petticoat  jupa,  skirt 

somelh,  summit  som,  summit 

tendelh,  pavillion  tenda,  tent 

tenselha,]  dispute  tensa,  dispute 

Under  -ILH(A)  there  appear  even  fewer  probable 
Provengal  formations,  although  there  are  several  words 
of  obscure  origin. 

The  following  are  apparently  Provengal  formations: 

cotilha,  shred  of  clothing  cota,  coat 

crozilha,  covering  (with  crosses)        crotz,  cross 
falsilha,  sickle  falsa,  scythe 

'  Even  this  word  can  hardly  be  formed  on  the  Prov.  simple  word  or 
we  should  have  arbrelh.  It  would  appear  to  be  derived  from  *arboric{u)- 
lus.  The  forms  in  the  other  languages,  however,  are  such  as  would  be 
derived  from  arboricellus  and  arboriscellus. 

-  See  Essais,  13,  note. 


t  It  may  be  seen  from  the  above  list  that  there  are  comparatively 
few  words  ending  in  -ELH  that  show  any  possibility  of  having  been 
formed  in  Prov.  There  are,  notwithstanding,  many  other  words  with 
this  suffix,  but  most  of  them  were  certainly  formed  in  Lat.,  and  all  of 
them  probably  were.  These  are:  abelha,  hee <.apicla;  artelh,  toe< 
articlum;  aurelha,  ear Kauricla;  corbelh,  basket <corbiclu7n;  dentelh, 
hattlement  Kdenticlum;  folelh,  B^ake  <_  folliclum;  manelha,  handle  < 
manicla;  ovelha,  sheep  Kovicla;  parelh,  couple  <:^pariclum;  solelh,  sun 
<,soliclum;  somelh,  sleep  <:^somnichim,  and  ventrelh  (also  ventrilh), 
venivicle <ventriclum.  The  unaccented  u  of  this  suffix  -ICULUS  and 
the  others  is  regularly  omitted,  as  it  did  not  exist  in  Vulgar  Lat.,  where 
-CL'LUS  and  -CLUS  had  the  same  form.  There  is  also  a  word  vertelh, 
meaning  a  joint,  which  appears  to  be  from  verticlum  (though  Korting 
gives  only  verticld),  and  a  curious  word  ambolelfi,  navel,  evidently  con- 
nected with  umbilicus.  -ICLUS  appears  to  have  been  substituted  here 
for  -ICLuS,  a  shifting  of  the  accent  likewise  taking  place.  But  the  word 
is  furthermore  peculiar  in  the  fact  that  if  derived  from  umbilicus  both 
the  initial  and  intertonic  vowels  have  been  altered.  Vaiselh,  vessel,  is 
undoubtedly  from  vascellum,  for  vasculum,  a  diminutive  of  vas,  vessel. 
Meravelha,  marvel,  is  from  mirabilia. 


70  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

fornilha,  cut  brunch  (for  heating     font,  oven 

the  oven,  according  to  Levy) 
ttarifJws,^  nostrils  naras,  nostrils,  nose 

polilh,  reel  on  crossbow  pol,'-  chicken 

polilha,  pulley  ( ?) 

Also  a  few  words  which  seem  to  be  built  on  verb-stems: 

departilh,  division  deparlir,  divide 

£s<a?«/)i7/ja  (?),  a  stamp  or  marker     cstampir,     resound.     Here     the 

ending  seems  to  designate  an 

instrument 
gandilh,]  refuge  gandir,  protect 

There  are  also  a  few  words  with  the  ending  -OLH(A), 
but  apparently  none  of  them  (except  janglolh)  are  Pro- 
vencal forrhations,  and  not  all  of  them  even  represent  a 
Latin  -UCLUS.  These  words  are:  capdolh,  chief-town, 
or  county-seat,  authority,  sway  <capitolium;  fenolh,  fennel 
<  fenuclum;  ferrolh,  bolt,  also  fire-shovel  <  veruclum 
(under  the  influence  of  ferrum  ?  There  is  also  a  word 
verrolh);  granolh,  hog<rnnucJi(m;^  janglolh,  foolish  talk, 

1  In  the  plural  because  the  word  on  which  it  was  formed  was  plural. 

=  The  Latin  pullus,  besides  "chicken,"  seems  to  have  meant  "small 
thing."  Or  are  these  words  derived  from  a  Germanic  root  meaning 
"to  pull"? 

»  Korting,  Ko.  7,756;  also  ALL,  V,  130,  where  the  a  is  explained  as 
due  to  the  influence  of  graiset,  tree-frog,  which  word  is  not  in  the  Prov. 
dictionaries.     Graisan,  toad,  is,  however,  found. 


fSome  word.s  in  -ILH  not  formed  in  Prov.  by  moans  of  -ICLUS 
should  be  observed.  One  word  appearing  to  be  a  post-verbal  formation 
(see  p.  541)  is  grazilh,  tickling,  from  grazilhar. 

A  few  words  ending  in  -ILH(A)  seem  to  have  been  formed  in  Lat. 
Thus,  anadilha  (or  nadilha),  piece  of  iron  fixed  to  the  center  of  a  mill- 
stone <ana<icZa  (Class.  Lat.,  anatlcula);  canilha,  caterpillar  <canic?a; 
cavilha,  ankle;  peg,  pinKcavicla;  dozilh,  faucet <.duciclum;  embonilh, 
naveKumbilicus,  whose  Prov.  derivatives  are  spelled  in  various  ways 
(as  ambolelh  above);  esmerilh,  sparrow-hawk,  which  appears  to  represent 
a  Lat.  merula  plus  the  prefix  ES-;  estrilha,  currycomb  <stngula  (Class. 
Lat.,  strigilis). 

Two  rather  obscure  words  with  the  ending  -ILH  are  gorbilh ,  trick  (?), 
and  gornilha,  evidently  denoting  some  fabulous  animal. 


Formation  of  Nouns  77 

nonsense  <  janglar,  talk  foolishly,  rail  at,  on  the  noun 
jangla,  foolish  talk  (this  appears  to  be  a  Provengal  forma- 
tion by  adding  a  Latin  suffix  to  a  word  of  Germanic 
origin) ;  peolh,  louse  <  peduclum;  and  verrolh,  bolt  < 
veruclum. 

The  only  word  in  -ULH(A)  is  escapulha,  a  kind  of  cape, 
which  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  scapula. 

-ALHA 

Next  come  the  words  in  -ALHA,  from  the  neuter  plural 
ending  -ALIA.  These  retain  their  collective  force, ^  and 
frequently  add  the  idea  of  contempt  to  that  of  number,  as 
in  the  many  words  meaning  ' 'rabble  "^ — canalha,  garson- 
alha,  gorinalha,  rihaudalha.  Frairalha,  meaning  "com- 
munity," "brothership,"  appears  to  be  a  possible  starting- 
point  for  words  where  the  collective  force  is  less  clear  and 
the  tendency  is  toward  an  abstract  meaning.^ 

The  list  of  words  in  -ALHA  formed  on  nouns  (and  ad- 
jectives) follows.   Those  formed  on  verbs  will  be  given  later. 

baralha,  trouble,  dispute  bar,  man 

boairalha,  collection  of  oxherds  probably  from  *boaire,  a  regu- 
lar development  of  bovarium. 
The  only  word  found,  however, 
is  bovier,  oxherd 

cabesalha,  throat,  collar,  opening  from  cabetz  (also  written  cabes), 
for  the  throat  meaning  also  throat  or  collar^ 

1  This  sufRx  is  the  neuter  plural  form  of  the  suffix  -AL  (from  -ALE) , 
given  above.  This  was  added  to  nouns,  naturally  giving  collective 
force.     It  originally  denoted  names  of  feasts  in  particular. 

2  The  word  "bowels"  also  appears  under  the  three  forms  coralha, 
intralha,  and  ventralha. 

'  This  tendency  is  rare  in  Prov.  Cf.,  however,  the  O.Fr.  arriveaille, 
arrival,  from  which  the  Engl,  word  comes,  and  some  other  words  in 
-AILLE. 

*  On  the  meaning  of  cabesalha,  see  Mod.  Phil.,  Ill,  543,  n.  4,  with 
the  references. 


78 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


canalha,  rabble 

comunalha,  community 

coralha,  bowels 

diablalha,  devil's  band 

fermalha,  betrothal 

ferralha,  iron- work 

ferraialha,^  old  iron 

filadalha,^  spun  yarn 

fonsalha,  bottom  of  dish 

frairalha,    community,    brother- 
ship 

fustalha,  woodwork 

garsotialha,  rabble 

gorinaiha,  rabble 

limalha,  filings 

mitralha,-  old  iron 

moralha,  horse-twit  chers 

mortalha,      epidemic;       infected 
place;  massacre 

itiostalha,  mustard   (a  commoner 
form  is  mostarda) 

obralha,  works 

orlalha,  fruits  of  the  garden,  vege- 
tables 

ortolalha,^   fruits   of   the   garden, 
vegetables 

pezonalha,  infantry 

pipalha,  pipes,  casks 

plancalha,  bridge  ( ?)  or  boarded- 
up  room 

polalha,  poultry 

postalha,  collection  of  boards 


can,  dog 

comun,  common 

cor,  heart 

diable,  devil 

ferm,  firm 

fer,  iron 

f err  at,  iron  pail 

filada,  layer,  from  fil,  thread 

fons,  bottom 

fraire,  brother 

fust,  wood    ' 
garson,  vagabond 
gorin,  sucking  pig 
lima,  file 

mor,  snout 

mort,  dead,  dead  person 

77iost,  must 

obra,  work 
ort,  garden 

ort,  garden 

pezon,  foot-soldier 
pipa,  pipe,  cask 
planca,  plank 

pol,  chicken 
post,  board 


1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 

2  Mila,  the  apparent  source  of  mitralha  (of.  Fr.  mitraille,  derived  from 
mite),  as  found  in  the  Prov.  examples,  seems  to  mean  only  "mitten." 
Mite  in  O.Fr.  means  a  small  coin  as  well  as  "mitten,"  and  it  seems  prob- 
able that  a  mila  with  this  meaning  existed  also  in  Prov.  Both  apparently 
go  back  to  the  same  Germanic  source.  See  Korting,  No.  6,221,  and  Die. 
Gen.,  mitraille. 

'As  ortolan,  gardener  (<Lat.  hortulanus),  exists,  -AN  may  have  been 
taken  for  a  Prov.  suffLx,  and  the  existence  of  ortol  assumed.  Then  to  this 
word  -ALHA  was  joined,  just  as  it  was  to  the  simple;  ort. 


Formation  of  Nouns  79 

ribaudalha,  rabble  ribaut,  ribald 

sirvendalha,  servants  sirven{t),  servant 

ventralha,\  entrails  ventre,  belly 

Many  of  the  above  words,  the  base-words  for  which 
have  been  given  as  nouns,  could  equally  well  have  been 
formed  on  verb-stems.  The  verb  limar,  to  file,  exists, 
for  example,  beside  the  noun  lima,  and  the  verb  ohrar 
beside  the  noun  obra.  Besides  cases  of  this  kind,  there  are 
other  words  which  must  have  been  formed  on  verb-stems, 
or  which,  at  least,  are  formed  on  no  nouns  that  are  now  to 
be  found.  Such  forms  as  obrar  beside  ohra,  limar  beside 
lima,  and  also /ermar  beside /erma,  in  which  pairs  the  simple 
word  might  not  always  be  clear,  give  a  starting-point 
for  these  formations.  Beside  the  formations  ending  in 
-ALHA  we  find,  however,  many  ending  in  -ALH,  which 
might  equally  well,  from  their  form,  find  a  source  in 
-ACLUM.  Their  meaning,  though,  seems  to  speak  against 
this  derivation,  as  there  is  no  idea  of  "the  instrument  with 
which  a  thing  is  done"  to  be  found  in  them.  There  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  no  collective  idea,  but  rather  an  ab- 
stract one;  j^et  the  suffix  -ALIA  seems  often  to  have  lost 
its  collective  force,  so  that  when  that  idea  was  intended 
to  be  expressed,  a  plural  s  was  sometimes  added,  as  in 
fondralhas  and  levalhas.  Moreover,  this  -ALH  does  not 
represent  the  plural  -ALIA,  but  the  neuter  singular 
-ALIUM,  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  expected  to  have 
collective  force. 


t  There  is  also  another  word  of  non-Prov.  formation,  gazalha,  lease  of 
live  stock.  See  Du  Cange's  gasalia;  Essais,  .377 ;  Grober,  Grundriss,  I, 
387;  also  below,  p.  110.     The  word  is  of  Gothic  origin. 

A  Lat.  formation  is  intralhas,  bowels  (for  the  s  see  above).  In- 
tralia,  found  in  popular  Lat.  (see  entrailles  in  Die.  Gen.),  appears  to  be  a 
deformation  of  intranea  through  the  influence  of  -ALIA.  Intranea  is 
a  neuter  plural,  and  is  due  to  the  analogy  of  extraneus.  See  also  Meyer- 
Liibke,  II,  548.  Obscure  words  in  both  form  and  meaning  are  mintalha 
and  prentalha. 


80  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Verlial  formations  in  -ALHA  still  retaining  the  -ALHA 
collective  idea  are  seen  in: 

cizalha,  clippings,   pai'ings  (espe-  from  cisum,  for  caesum.     Prob- 
cially  of  metal  used  in  coining)  ably  a  Latin  formation 

fendalhn,  clefts,  chinks  fendre,  cleave 

fondridhas,  dregs,  sediment  fondre,  melt 

levalhas,     first    churchings    of    a  levar,  rise 
woman  in  childbed 

Here  may  be  added  also  three  more  words,  curalha, 
divinalha,  and  mesdalha.  These  have  the  plural  end- 
ing -ALHA  and  are  formed  on  verbs,  curar,  divinar, 
and  mesclar,  but  have  no  clearly  collective  force: 

curalha,  falling  off,  descent  curar,  trouble  oneself 

divinalha,  talk,  rumor,  gossip  (in     divinar,  divine 

the  sense  of  "divinings"  having 

a  perceptibly  collective  idea) 
mesclalha,^  fight,  scuffle  mesclar,  mix,  fight 

In  -ALH  and  formed  on  verbs  by  means  of  the  neuter 

singular  -ALIUM,  with  certainly  no  collective  force,  but 

rather  an  abstract  one,  we  find: 

arribalh,  arrival,  landing  arribar,  land 

cercalh,  investigation'  cercar,  seek 

definalh,  end  definar,  end 

demoralh,  recreation  demorar,  dally 

devinalh,  investigation,  search  devinar,  guess 

refrenalh,  reserve,  prudence  refrenar,  restrain 

retenalh,]  prudence,  discretion  retener,  retain 

-ILHA 

Like  the  words  in  -ALHA,  the  words  in  -ILHA  are 
generally  formed  on  nouns,  though  occasionally  without 
any   noun   as   source  in   Provengal.      -ILHA  represents 

"  The  noun  mescla  with  the  same  meaning  as  mesdalha  exists,  but  it 
was  probably  a  postverbal  formation  (see  p.  546,  below). 


t  Another  word  in  -ALH  from  -ALIUM  is  esgotalh,  dregs,  having 
collective  force.  It  seems  to  be  the  only  example  of  the  singular  -ALIUM 
with  this  force.     It  occurs  onlj-  once,  and  its  meaning  is  not  wholly  clear. 


Formation  of  Nouns  81 

the  Latin  neuter   plural   -ILIA.     Added  to  nouns,  it  is 

seen  in: 

escobilha,  sweepings  escoba,  broom 

escombrilha,^  rubbish  escombre,  rubbish 

nervilha^  nervi,  nerve 

ordilha,  descent  orde.  order 

It  is  found  added  to  nouns  and  adjectives  which  are  at 
the  same  time  past  participles  of  verbs,  in : 

fachilha,  charms,  sorcery  fach,  deed  (also  past  participle 

of  faire) 
frechilha,  fried  stuflf  frech,  fried  (from  fregir) 

sofrachilha,  destitution  sofracha,   want     {sofrach,    from 

sofranher) 

One  word  is  formed  on  a  past  participle  without  the 

intermediary  of  any  noun  or  adjective: 

remazilha,'\  remains  from  remas,  the  past  participle 

of  remaner,  remain 

Some  words  also  are  formed  on  verb-stems: 

jazilha,  childbed  jazer,  lie 

mondilha,  siftings  mondar,  sift 

-AM,  -IM,  -UM 

The  suffixes  -AM,  -IM,  -UM  are  found  in  a  few  words 
in  Provengal,  and  represent  the  Latin  -A-MEN,  -I-MEN, 
and  -U-MEN,  which  were  added  to  verb-stems  to  form 
abstract  nouns,  as  in  aequamen,  regimen,  documen,  although 
already  in  Latin  another  meaning  had  begun  to  appear — 

1  Another  word  just  like  this  is  escolilha,  dregs,  but  there  is  no  simple 
Prov.  word  on  which  to  base  it.  It  appears  to  have  been  formed  in  Lat . 
Du  Cange  gives  sculellae  with  the  same  meaning. 

'See  Du  Cange,  nerhilium.  The  word  seems  to  mean  "group  of 
nerves,"  and  is  apparently  used,  together  with  hudellum,  bowels,  to  denote 
the  worthless  parts  of  fish. 


t  A  word  of  Lat.  origin  that  might  be  placed  here  is  ostilha,  utensil, 
coming  from  *uselilia,  from  *usetile,  a  changed  form  of  utensile.  Cf. 
Fr.  outil. 


82  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

the  collective  idea,  as  seen  in  calceamen.     Meyer-Liibke^ 

explains  the  origin  of  this  meaning  b.y  deriving,  in  the  first 

place,  from  calceus,  a  shoe,  the  verb  calceare,  to  shoe,  and 

from  this  the  noun  calceamen,  shoes  (collective),  which 

takes  the  idea  of  the  thing,  as  seen  in  the  original  word, 

rather  than  that  of  activity,  as  seen  in  the  verb.     This 

word,  then,  serves  as  a  starting-point  for  future  formations 

made  directly  on  nouns,-  without  any  verb  intervening 

as  an  intermediate  stage,  and  these  new  formations  have 

in  almost  all  cases  the  collective  idea,  as  seen  in  calceamen. 

In  Provencal,  under  -AM  there  are  a  good  many  new  words 

with  purel}^  collective  force: 

agriam,  sour  fruit  (igre,  sour,  sharp 

bestiam,  cattle  bestia,  animal 

cordam,  cordage  corda,  cord 

dogam,  stave-wood  doga,  stave 
frejam,  pluck  (heart,  liver,  etc.,  of 

animals) 

funam,  ropework  fun,  rope 

lenham,  wood  lenha,  wood 

pelam,  skins  pel,  skin 

postam,f  boards  posta,  post,  stake 

And  also  one  word  with  different  force,  and  formed  ap- 
parently on  a  Provengal  verb: 
lauram,  workmanship  ( ?)  laurar,  to  work 

This  Avord,  however,  may  represent  a  Latin  loramen  with 
the  change  of  o  to  au.^ 

'  II,  530,  where  a  treatment  of  these  suffixes  is  given. 

2  Also  on  an  adjective  (used  substantively),  in  agriam. 

'  See  Levy,  IV,  336.  Loramen  meant  "strap"  or  "straps"  and  was 
formed  on  lorum,  strap.  Cf.  the  O.Fr.  lorain.  Lorain  probably  means 
"straps"  instead  of  "workmanship." 


t  Other  words,  mostly  with  this  collective  idea,  seem  to  be  simply 
descendants  of  words  already  formed  in  Lat.  Thus  estam,  carded  wool 
<Lat.  stamen;  estram,  straw,  fodder<Lat.  stramen;  Ham,  fetter<Lat. 
ligamen  (Olcott,  125) ;  mairam,  staves,  probably  derived  from  the  Lat. 
materiamen;  and  pergam  or  pargam,  parchment,  found  beside  pergamen. 


Formation  of  Nouns  83 

The  suffix  -IM,  from  a  Latin  -IMEN,  is  of  very  infre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  Romance  languages,  and  Pro- 
vengal  has  only  the  following  words  to  offer,  many  of 
which  are  not  real  Provengal  formations:  aguzim,  blastifn, 
gaim,  noirim,  or  dim,  revolim. 

aguzim,  point:  From  aguzar,  sharpen  (?),  given  by 
Thomas,^  but  not  explained.- 

blastim,  blame:  Appears  to  be  only  a  post-verbal 
substantive  from  the  verb  hlastimar,  to  blame.^ 

gaim,  after-growth:  Seems  to  represent  the  Germanic 
root  *waid  plus  the  suffix  -IMEN.  The  derivation  is 
not  certain,  but  Thomas  makes  it  appear  probable.'*  The 
other  words  in  the  list,  except  hlastim  and  noirim,  show 
the  use  of  the  suffix  in  Gaul. 

noirim,  nourishment;  young  animals;  plant:  Seems 
to  be  only  the  Latin  yiutrimen,  and  therefore  not  a  Pro- 
vengal  formation,  although  there  is  a  verb  noirir,  nourish. 

ordim,  warp  of  a  tissue;  ordir,  weave. 

revolim,  whirlwind :  Is  explained  by  Thomas^  as  a  prob- 
able gasconism  for  revolum,  the  form  to  be  expected  from 
revolver,  to  turn  about. 

The  suffix  -UM,  from  the  Latin  -UMEN,  is  of  more  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  Provengal,  and  is  added  more  freely 
to  the  various  parts  of  speech.  For  Provengal,  we  have 
seen  -AM  added  to  nouns  to  form  collectives  and  -IM 
added  to  verb-stems  to  form  abstracts  in  a  few  more  or 
less  doubtful  Provenyal  formations.^     The  regular  abstract 

» Essais,  375. 

2  Possibly  a  gasconism.  Thomas  says  that  the  suffix  -IM  was  com- 
mon in  Gascony. 

3  See  nouns  formed  from  verbs,  p.  539. 

4  Essais,  372. 

5  As  the  above  examples  show,  the  use  of  -IM  in  Prov.  is  hard  to 
describe.     No  definite  meaning  or  kind  of  base-word  can  be  assigned  it. 


84  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

suffix  of  this  group  for  Provengal  appears  to  be  -UM,  which 
was  added  both  to  verb-stems  and  to  adjectives  to  give 
this  idea.  It  appears  to  have  been  added  indiscriminately 
to  verbs  of  all  conjugations  (cf.  comolum  from  comolar, 
and  farsum  from  farsir)  and  to  have  taken  occasionally  a 
collective  meaning  when  added  to  a  verb-stem  (cf.  gen- 
sum  from  gensar).  In  Modern  Provengal  this  suffix  ap- 
pears to  be  still  important.^ 

On  verbs,  we  find  the  following  formations: 

arsum,  burning  From  ars,  burnt,  from  the  verb 

ardre,  apparently  the  only  case 
of  the  formation  of  a  word  in 
-UM  on  a  past  participle 
comolum,  full  measure  comolar,  heap  up 

farsum,  stuffing  farsir,  stuff 

frachum  (given  by  Levy^  without 
meaning,  and  may  be  another 
formation  on  a  past  participle 
— that  of  the  verb  franker). 
Here  the  force  would  be  col- 
lective 
gensum,  sweepings  gensar,  ornament 

On  adjectives,  the  following  abstracts  are  found: 

amarum,  bitterness  amar,  bitter 

autum,  height  aut,  high 

frescum,]  freshness  fresc,  fresh 

In  one  word,  the  suffix  appears  to  be  attached  to  a  noun 
without  bringing  any  change  of  meaning.    The  word  itself, 
however,  is  a  collective  noun: 
poblum,  people  poble,  people 

»  Meyer-Lubke,  II,  535.  » III,   578. 


fNon-Prov.  formations  are  seen  in  balum,wax,  putty,  possibly  from 
the  Lat.  bitumen,  and  legum  from  legumen.  Elecrum,  a  kind  of  plant,  is 
probably  also  Lat.  (connected  with  alacer  [l])  though  not  found.  An- 
other word,  nersum,  is  given  by  Appel  in  his  vocabulary,  but  omitted  in 
the  text,  and  placed  instead  in  a  footnote  as  not  understood. 


Formation  of  Nouns  85 


-AMEN,    -IMEN,    -UMEN 


The  group  of  suffixes  arising  from  the  Latin  -MEN- 
TUM,  namely  -AMEN,  -EMEN,  and  -IMEN,  is,  from 
the  number  of  words  in  which  it  is  found,  perhaps  the  most 
important  of  all  Provengal  suffixes.  Here  are  found  again 
the  connecting  vowels  A-,  E-,  and  I-,  the  signs  of  the  con- 
jugation of  the  verb  to  whose  stem  the  suffix  was  ordi- 
narily added  (as  was  the  case  with  -ADOR,  -EDOR, 
and  -IDOR,  -ADURA,  -EDURA,  and  -IDURA),  showing 
the  suffix  to  be  a  verbal  one. 

Like  nearly  all  suffixes  attached  to  verbs,  the  principal 
use  of  -AMEN,  etc.,  is  abstract.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said 
to  be  pre-eminently  the  abstract  suffix  in  Provengal, 
both  from  the  number  of  words  in  which  it  had  this  force 
and  the  few  words  in  which  any  other  meaning  can  be  seen. 
Yet  it  did  not  always  contain  this  idea  exclusively.  In 
treating  the  suffix  in  Latin,  Roediger  gives  many  examples 
of  concrete  as  well  as  abstract  words,  and  supposes,  as  is 
natural  enough,  that  the  concrete  use  preceded  the 
abstract.^  Most  of  the  concrete  words  that  he  gives  are 
formed  on  verbs:  (1)  with  the  idea  of  means,  or  (2)  with 
that  of  some  particular  thing  coming  as  a  result  of  some 
action;  but  other  words  are  formed  directly  on  nouns. 
Most  of  these  denote  the  thing  resulting  from  an  action, 
and  a  few  denote  material,  whereas  in  others  the  suffix 
brings  no  change  of  meaning.  The  true  abstracts,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  all  real  verbal  formations. 

With  such  an  array  of  Latin  uses  before  one,  it  is  rather 
hard  to  find  many  new  uses  among  the  Provengal  forma- 
tions. The  individuality  of  Provengal  and  of  the  other 
Romance  languages  lies  not  so  much  in  the  creation  of 
new  uses  for  any  given  suffix,  as  in  the  extent  to  which 

1  Die  Bedeutung  des  Suffixes  -MEXT,  4. 


86  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

certain  methods  wore  doveloped  as  coini)ared  with  the 
relative  negleet  of  others,  lu  the  case  of  the  suffix  -^lEN- 
TUM,  the  most  striking  phenomenon  is  the  enormous 
development  which  the  abstract  use  of  the  suffix  has  taken, 
from  being  in  Latin  only  one  of  several  uses  to  being  in 
Proven9al  almost  the  only  one.  The  tendency  to  give 
verbal  suffixes  abstract  force  is  universal  in  ProveiiQal. 
Even  the  descendants  of  Latin  words  with  other  meanings 
have,  for  the  most  part,  this  force  in  their  Provengal 
representatives.  There  are,  nevertheless,  many  words 
formed  in  Provengal  without  any  real  abstract  force,  but 
rather  the  meaning  of  some  concrete  thing  resulting  from 
the  action  described  by  the  verb  on  which  they  are  formed. 
Demamen,  for  example,  means,  not  "tithing,"  but  "a 
tithe,"  and  dechamen,  formed  on  dechar,  means  "a 
writing-copy,"  also  "a  rule."  All  words  of  this  kind  will 
l)e  pointed  out  in  the  complete  list  of  words  in  -MEN. 
In  the  vast  number  of  pure  abstracts,  words  of  this  kind 
are  comparatively  rare. 

New  formations  on  nouns  are  also  comparatively  rare 
in  Provengal,  numbering,  all  told,  under  twenty.  For 
words  of  this  kind  in  Latin,  Roediger  gives  only  the  mean- 
ings mentioned  above,  whereas  in  Provengal  most  of  these 
words  also  have  taken  abstract  force.  Some  of  them 
may  have  been  coined  and  used  only  by  the  authors  in 
whose  works  they  are  found,  but  they  show,  at  any  rate, 
how  important  -MENTUM  had  become  as  a  purely 
abstract  suffix.  Fermalhamen  shows  the  use  of  the  suffix 
without  force.  One  other  use  of  the  suffix  in  Provengal 
is  with  collective  force,  which  appears  to  be  a  Romance 
rather  than  a  Latin  usage.  In  Provengal,  most  of  the 
words  with  this  force  are  parasyntheta^  rather  than  simple 

» I.e.,  they  added  a  prefix  as  well  as  a  suffix,  and  siinultaneouslj'. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


87 


suffix-formations,  although  ferramen  is  of  the  latter  class. 
But  in  forming  collectives,  the  plural  -MENTA  was 
generally  used,  giving  -MENTA  in  Provengal. 

The  complete  lists  of  the  words  in  -AMEN,  -EMEN, 
and  -IMEN  will  now  be  given  in  order.  Words  whose 
meanings  are  in  any  way  peculiar  will  be  treated  in  the 
notes.  The  words  in  -MENTA,  from  the  Latin  plural 
suffix  -MENTA,  will  be  given  at  the  end. 

The  words  containing  the  suffix  -AMEN  are  as  follows : 


abjuramen,  abjuration 
abrazamen,  burning 
abrivamen,  impetuosity 
acampamen,  collection^ 
acaptamen,'   recognition    of     the 

"acapte" 
acertamen,  proof 
acesamen,  assessment 
aclinamen,  bow 
acoindamen,  intimacy 
acordamen,  accord 
acostamen,  intercourse 
acujamen,^  idea 
acuzamen,  accusation 
adobmnen,  adornment 
adoctrinamen,  teaching 
adordenamen    (also  az-),    order, 

arrangement 
afachamen,  artifice,  manner 
afermamen,  affirmation 
afilhamen,  affiliation 
afinamen,  end 
afizamen,  agreement 


abjurar,  abjure 
abrazar,  burn 
abrivar,  hasten 
acampar,  assemble 


acertar,  assure 

acesar,  assess 

aclinar,  bow 

acoindar,  become  acquainted 

acordar,  agree 

acostar,  approach 

acuzar,  accuse 
adobar,  arm 
adoctrinar,  teach 
adordenar,  order 

afachar,  disguise 
afermar,  affirm 
afilhar,  adopt,  affiliate 
afinar,  end 
afizar,  assure,  intrust 


1  This  type  of  meaning  in  words  in  -MEN  is  not  unusual.  The 
force  seems  to  be  not  so  much  abstract  or  to  indicate  the  action  itself  as 
to  indicate  its  result. 

2  See  Du  Cange's  accaptare  and  accapilamentum;  also  Etym.  Wdrterb., 
No.  65.  The  word  appears  to  be  formed  directly  on  the  noun  acapte,  a 
post-verbal  derived  from  acaplar. 

3  Apparently  formed  on  cujar.  See,  therefore,  parasyntheta,  on  p. 
527. 


88 


Word-Formation  in  Proven (;al 


afolamen,   damage,  injury 

agardamcn,  look,  appearance 

agensamen,  disposition,  arrange- 
ment 

agreujamen,  aggravat ion 

airamen,  anger  (see  az-) 

ajornamen,  adjournment 

ajostamen,  arrangement 

alargamen,  wildness,^  wantonness 
(L) 

alascamen,  release 

albergamen,  lodging 

alenamen,  breathing 

aleujamen,  lightening 

alinhamen,  alignment 

oLongamen,  lengthening  (L);  re- 
moval (R) 

alumnamen,  lighting 

amagamen,  act  of  hiding 

amaestramen,  teaching 

amasamen,  amassing 

amelhoramen,  improvement 

arnenamen,  house,  lodging- 

amendamen,  amend,  fine 

amermamen,  diminution 
amonestamen,  admonition 
amostramen,  showing 
amparamen,  protection;  also  ram- 
part 
anonciamen,  announcement 
apanamen,  nourishment 
aparcelamen,  division 
apariamen,  association,  company 
apelamen,  appeal,  invocation 
apohlamen,  colonization 
apoderamen,  authority,  power 


afolar,  injure 
agardar,  look  at 
agctisar,  arrange 

agreujar,  aggravate 

airar,  anger 

ajornar,  become  day,  adjourn 

ajostar,  arrange 

alar  gar,  enlarge,  free,  deliver 

alascar,  release 
albergar,  lodge 
alenar,  breathe 
aleujar,  lighten 
alinhar,  aUgn 
alongar,  lengthen 

alumnar,  light 

amagar,  hide 

amaestrar,  teach 

amasar,  amass 

amelhorar,  improve 

amenar,  bring 

amendar,^  repair,  make  amends 

for 
amermar,  diminish 
amonestar,  advise 
amostar,  show 
amparar,  protect 

anonciar,  announce 
apanar,  gi\'e  bread 
aparcelar,  divide  up 
apariar,  join,  unite 
apelar,  call 
apoblar,  populate 
apoderar,  surpass,  subdue 


1  The  meaning  of  the  noun  seems  to  come  from  the  idea  of  freeing. 

*  There  is  not  only  concrete  force  here,  but  it  is  hard  to  see  the  con- 
nection with  the  verb,  meaning  "to  guide,"  "bring,"  "lead,"  on  which 
it  is  apparently  formed,  though  the  meaning  given  appears  correct. 

3  See  Stichel,  12. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


89 


apontamen,  treaty 
aprimairamen,^  primacy 
aprobencamen,'^  reconciliation 
aproismamen,  approach,  access 
apropjamen,  approach,  access 
apropriamen,^  property 
aquitamen,  acquittal 
arendamen,  renting 
arestamen,  arrest 
arezamen,  order,  preparation 
aribamen,  landing,  arrival 
arnescamen,  fitting  out,  equip- 
ment 
arozamen,  watering,  irrigation 
artiamen*  art,  skill 
asaboramen,  savor 
aseguramen,  assurance 
asermamen,  arrangement 
asetjamen,  sitting 
asinhamen,  assignment 
asuavamen,  stillness,  peace 
atalentamen,  desire 
ateiramen,  succession 
atermenamen,  Hmit 
atilhamen,  charm,  consent 
atrachamen,  action,  deed 
atrobamen,  invention 
auzamen,  boldness 
aviamen,  removal,  transportation 


apontar,  agree 
aprimairar,  go  to  the  front 
aprobencar,  approach 
aproismar,  approach 
apropjar,  approach 
apropriar,  appropriate 
aquitar,  acquit 
arendar,  rent 
arestar,  arrest,  stop 
arezar,  order,  prepare 
aribar,  arrive 
arnescar,  equip 

arozar,  water 

asaborar,  deUght,  savor 

asegurar,  assure 

asermar,  prepare 

asetjar,  seat 

asi{n)har,  assign 

asuavar,  quiet 

atalentar,  desire 

ateirar,  put  in  fine  ( ?) 

atermenar,  limit 

atilhar,  arrange 

atrachar,  arrange,  bring  about 

atrobar,  find 

auzar,  dare 

aviar,  transport,  move 


1  This  is  a  very  interesting  word,  in  that  it  appears  to  be  an  example 
of  a  suffix  added  to  a  parasyntheton.  This  is  not  unusual  (cf.  alonga- 
men) ,  but  as  prim  as  well  as  primier  exists,  the  word  has  the  appearance 
of  adding  a  double  suffix  to  the  parasyntheton. 

'  A  less  literal  meaning  than  in  aproismamen.  A  rather  obscure 
word  is  aplaisamen.  Levy  gives  no  meaning  for  it,  and  its  formation  is 
obscure. 

'  Concrete  force.  Here  we  have  an  example  of  a  thing  resulting  from 
the  action  expressed  bj^  the  verb. 

*  No  verb  is  found,  yet  the  addition  of  a  suffix  *-IAMEN  to  a  noun 
hardly  seems  probable.  Raynouard,  in  the  last  volume  of  his  dictionary, 
lists  a  word  artejar,  but  gives  no  meaning  or  reference.  Artiamen,  or 
the  other  spelling,  artejamen,  was  probablj^  formed  on  such  a  verb. 


90 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


avizanien,  warning 

aziramen,  anger 

haizamen,  kiss,  kissing 

hanejamen,  banishment 

barrejamen,  robbery,  plunder 

bautugamen,  confusion 

blasmainen,  blame 

bobansamcn,  ostentation 

bolamen,  limiting,  bounding 

bufamen,  breathing 

calcamen,  trampling 

caminamen,  march,  wandering 

capdelamen,  leadership 

caplamen}  slaughter 

cavamen,  excavation 

cercondamen,  circumference 

colliamen,  binding  together 

coltivamen,  reverence,  adoration 

comandamen,  command 

comensamen,  beginning 

comparamen,    comparison    (R) , 
punishment  (L) 

comportamen,  conduct 

confesamen,  confession 

confortamen,  courage,  encourage- 
ment 

confrontamen,-  limit,  boundary 

conjuramen,^  conspiracy 

conortamen,  encouragement 

conquistamen,  conquering 

conselhamen,^  advice 

conservamen,  preservation 

consiramen,  care 

consolamen,  consolation 

consolidamen,  strengthening 

contamen,  recital 


avizar,  warn,  advise 

azirar,  anger,  hate 

baizar,  kiss 

banejar,  banish 

barrejar,  rob 

bautugar,  trouble 

blasmar,  blame 

bobansar,  surround  with  pomp 

bolar,  limit,  bound 

bufar,  breathe 

calcar,  trample 

caminar,  journey 

capdtiar,  lead,  guide 

caplar,  hew,  cut  into 

cavar,  dig 

cercondar,  wander  through 

colliar,  bind  together 

coUivar,  respect 

comandar,  command 

comensar,  begin 

comparar,  compare 

comportar,  behave 

confesar,  confess 

confortar,  comfort,  encourage 

confrontar,  confront 
conjuror,  conspire 
conortar,  encourage 
conquistar,  conquer 
conselhar,  advise 
conservar,  preserve 
consirar,  consider 
consolar,  console 
consolidar,  strengthen 
contar,  relate,  tell 


1  Levy  gives  as  chaplamen,  which  seems  in  contradiction  with  the 
statement  in  his  preface  that  c  coming  from  a  Lat.  c  before  a  would  be 
written  c  and  not  ch. 

2  Apparently  denotes  the  result  of  an  action:    concrete  force. 

'  This  is  the  type  of  words  whose  meaning  may  be  cither  the  action 
itself  or  the  resuU  of  an  action. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


91 


contraponchamen,^  counterpoint 

contrastamen,  opposition 

conversamen,  frequenting,  also 
company 

cornamen,  buzzing 

cortejamen,  visiting 

creamen,  creation 

cremamen,  burning 

crezensamen^  surety,  bail 

cridamen,  cry,  uproar 

curamen,  care;  cure 

damnamen,  damnation 

dauramen,  gilding 

debaisamen,  lessening 

debotamen,  expulsion 

decapitamen,  beheading 

dechamen,^  writing-copy;  pre- 
cept, rule 

declaramen,  declaration;  explana- 
tion ( ?) 

decostamen,'^  payment  of  expenses 

defasamen,^  distortion,  defacement 

deformamen,  deformity 

deguizamen,^  kind,  species  (also 
des-) 

dejunamen,  fasting 

delechamen,  delectation 

deliamen,  loosing 

demamen,^  a  tenth,  tithe 


contrastar,  oppose 
conversar,  converse 

cornar,  buzz 
cortejar,  hold  court 
crea";  create 
cremar,  burn 
crezensar,  give  bail  for 
cridar,  cry  out 
curar,  care  about,  worry 
damnar,  damn 
daurar,  gild 
debaisar,  lose  value 
debotar,  reject 
decapiiar,  behead 
dechar,  compose 

declarar,  declare 


deformar,  deform 
de{s)guizar,  make  different,  dis- 
tort 
dejunar,  fast 
delechar,  delight 
deliar,  loose 
de{s)mar,  tithe 


1  Contraponchar  is  not  found.  Contraponchamen  is  probabh'  formed 
of  contra  plus  ponchamen,  pointing,  derived  from  ponchar.  See  the  prefix 
CONTRA-,  pp.  467  f,  below.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  forms  without 
suffix  in  the  other  languages  (Fr.  contrepoint;  It.  contrapunto;  Engl. 
counterpoint) . 

2  Result  of  an  action  denoted  here. 

3  Concrete  force  here. 

*  Decostar  is  not  found.     See  parasyntheta,  p.  527. 

6  Defasar  is  not  found,  so  that  the  word  appears  to  be  a  parasyn- 
theton  formed  on  fasa  (see  parasyntheta,  p.  527).  Defasar  may  have 
existed,  however.     Cf.  the  O.Fr.  desfacier. 

«  These  words  denote  the  result  of  an  action  rather  than  the  action 
itself. 


92 


WoRD-FoKMATION    IN    l*K()VEN(,'AL 


demenamcn,    discussion,    negotia- 
tion 
dcDionimdi,  dwellinfi,  remaining 
dcmoslrnmen,  demonstration 
denegamcn,  denial 
denombramen,^  specification,  bill 
denonciamcn,  denunciation 
deportamen,  conduct 
dcpurainen,  purification 
dcrivamen,  derivation 
dcrocamen,  upsetting 
descoloramen,  paleness 
desconorlamen,  distress 
desfizamen,  challenge 
desguizamen,  see  deguizamen 
deslasamen,  separation 
desliuramen,  delivery 
desmemhramen,  dismemberment 
desmembramen,  forgetting 
desmeinoriamen,^  loss  of  memory 
desmuramen,  breaking  open  of  a 

wall 
despagamen,  disappointment  (?) 
despechamen,  scorn 
despoblamen,  abandonment 
despolhamen,  spoliation 
despreziamen,^  depreciation 
desrazonamen,^  unreason 
dessaboramen,  disgust 
dessicamen,  drying  up 
destardamen,  prejudice,  injury 
deslempramen,  disturbance 
destermenamen,  extermination 


drnicmir,  lead,  conduct 

(/( ntorar,  remain 
denioslrar,  demonstrate 
denegar,  deny 

denonciar,  denounce 
deportar,  behave,  amuse 
depurar,  purify 
derivar,  derive 
derocar,  upset 
descolornr,  discolor 
desconortar,  discourage 
desfizar,  challenge 

deslasar,  untie 
desliurar,  deliver 
desrnembrar,  dismember 
desmembrar,  forget 

desmurar,  break  open  (a  wall) 

despagar,  disappoint 
despechar,  scorn 
despoblar,  abandon  a  place 
despolhar,  despoil 
desprezar,  depreciate 

dessaborar,  disgust 
dessicar,  dry  up 
destardar,  injure,  delay 
deslemprar,  unsettle 
destermenar,  exterminate 


1  Xo  verb.     See  parasyntheta,  p.  527. 

2  See  parasyntheta,  p.  527. 

3  The  form  of  this  word  as  given  in  Raynouard,  and  not  changed  by 
Levy,  is  pecuhar.  There  existed  also  a  learned  form,  despreciar,  from 
which  there  was  formed  a  post-verbal  noun,  despreczi.  Despreziamen 
seems  to  show  the  influence  of  these  forms. 

*  Desrazonar  is  not  found,  although  it  may  have  existed  (of.  Fr. 
deraisonner  and  O.Fr.  dcsraisnier) .  Or  the  word  may  be  razonamen  plus 
-DES.     See  prefixes,  p.  470. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


93 


destorhamen,  disturbance 
destriamen,  sorting,  choosing 
destrigamen,  delay 
detrencamen,  cutting  do\\Ti 
devalamen,  lowering 
devedamen,  prohibition 
devinamen,  idle  speech 
devoramen,  swallowing  up 
dezeretamen,  disinheritance 
dezesperamen,  despair 
dezoblidamen,  forgetfulness 
dezordenamen,  disproportion 
dictamen,  judgment 
dilatamen,  dilation 
disipamen,'^  disturbance 
doctrinamen,  teaching 
domnejamen,  gallantry 
donamen,  gift,  giving 
doptamen,  doubt 

dresamen,^  putting  up,  building  ( ?) 
edificamen,  building^ 
egalamen,  equal  taxation 
eisilhamen,  exile;  injury;  punish- 
ment^ 
eisausamen,  approbation,  praise 
embanamen,  outworks  of  fortress^ 
embargamen,  embarrassment 
embrazamen,  burning 


desforbar,  disturb 

destriar,  distinguish 

destrigar,  delay 

detrencar,  cut  in  two,  split 

devalar,  lower 

devedar,  forbid 

devinar,  guess 

devorar,  devour 

dezeretar,  disinherit 

dezesperar,  make  desperate 

dezoblidar,  forget 

dezordenar,  put  in  disorder 

dictar,^  dictate 

dilatar,  dilate 

disipar,  dissipate 

doctrinar,  teach 

domnejar,  court 

donar,  give 

doptar,  doubt 

dresar,  set  up 

edificar,  build 

egalar,  make  equal 

eisilhar,  disturb,  destroy,  exile 

eisausar,  approve  of 
embanar,  fortify 
embargar,  embarrass 
embrazar,  burn 


I  From  the  same  source  as  dechar,  above.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  different  meanings  that  these  words  and  their  derivatives,  dictamen 
and  dechamen,  have  taken  in  their  learned  and  their  popular  forms. 

'  Levj%  like  Raynouard,  gives  the  word  spelled  as  above,  but  states 
that  he  can  find  only  the  form  desipamen. 

'  The  meaning  is  not  thoroughly  clear,  and  Levy  gives  no  transla- 
tion, but  from  the  example  it  seems  to  have  the  force  given  above.  The 
usual  form  of  the  verb  is  dreisar,  therefore  dreisamen  might  be  expected 
here.     The  only  text  in  which  the  word  is  found  is  in  the  Gascon  dialect. 

*  Concrete  force  here  (result  of  an  action  rather  than  the  action 
itself). 

5  This  translation  given  in  the  little  Levy.  The  first  two  are  Ray- 
nouard's.     The  larger  Levy  does  not  mention  the  word. 

«  Concrete,  with  tendency  toward  collective  force. 


94 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


empachar,  prevent,  seize,  attach 


empastrar,  prevent 
empejorar,  deteriorate 
empenhar,  pawn 
empensar,  invent,  devise 
emperilhar,  imperil 
emplegar,    employ,    make 

chases 
empodestir,  put  in  possession 


pur- 


embrocamen,^  soft  poultice 

empachamen,  empaitamen,  attach- 
ment, seizure 

cmparamen,  prohibition,  protec- 
tion (see  also  amparamen) 

cmpastramen,  hindrance 

empejornmen,  deterioration 

cmpenhamen,  pawning 

cmpensamen,  undertaking,  project 

emperilhamen,  peril 

emplegamen,  purchase 

empoestamen,'^  authority 
cmpontamen,^  scaffold,  stage 
empreizonamen,  imprisonment 
enamoramen,  enamorment 
enartamen,"^  dexterity,  skill 
encapamen,  whetting  of  millstone 
encargamen,  accusation 
encartamen,^  chart 
encegamen,  blindness 
encercamen,  investigation 
encolpamen,  accusation 
encombramen,  encumbrance 
enconlramen,  meeting 
encuzamen,  accusation 
endenhamen,  indignation 
endoloiramen,'*  suffering 
endreisamen,  guidance 
enebriamen,  drunkenness 
enfachamen,^   conceit,    whim  (?). 

Levy  gives  no  meaning;    not 

"imagination,"  as  in  Bartsch 

I  Embrocar  exists  but  has  different  force.  Embrocamen  (with  con- 
crete force)  seems  to  be  derived  from  embroca,  poultice  (<Lat.  embrocha; 
Gr.  fix^poxn). 

'  For  these  words  see  parasyntheta,  p.  527,  below.  Enartar  exists, 
but  has  a  different  meaning. 

3  Concrete  force  seen  here.  The  result  of  the  action  expressed  by 
the  verb  is  shown. 

<  The  word  probably  does  not  exist,  and  is  in  Raynouard  owing  to  a 
confusion.     See  nominal  prefixes,  p.  472,  n.  1. 

'  See  also  parasyntheta,  p.  527. 


empreizonar,  imprison 
enamorar,  enamor 

encapar,  whet  a  millstone 
encargar,  charge 
encartar,  inscribe 
encegar,  blind 
encercar,  seek,  strive 
encolpar,  accuse 
encombrar,  encumber 
encontrar,  meet 
encuzar,  accuse 
endenhar,  be  indignant 

endreisar,  set  up 
enebriar,  inebriate 


Formation  of  Nouns 


95 


enfalagamen,^  over-fatigue;  delu- 
sion ( ?) 

enfivamen,-  loan 

enflamen,  swelling 

enfranchamen  (?),^  hurt;  infrac- 
tion;   violation  (of  rule) 

engalamen,  see  egalamen 

enganamen,  deception 

engarramen,  insult,  injury 

engenramen,  engendering 

engorjamen,  gluttony 

engraisamen,^  manure 

engroisamen,  increase 

enlasamen,  entwining 

enlumenamen,  picture 

enmuramen,  walling  up 

enojamen,  annoyance 

ensenhamen,  teaching,  treatise 

ensolhavien,^  foundations  of  sill  or 
threshhold 

entalentamen,  desire 

entaulamen,^  beams,  timber-work 

entergamen,''  question 

enterramen,  plastering 

entregamen,  truce 

entrelaisamen,  interruption 

entrencamen.  breach* 


enflar,  swell  up 


enganar,  deceive 
engarrar*  injure 
engenrar,  engender 
engorjar,  cram 
engraisar,  fatten 
engroisar,  increase 
enlasar,  entwine 
enlumenar,  illumine 
enmurar,  wall  up 
enojar,  annoy 
ensenhar,  teach 


entalentar,  desire 


enterrar,^  cover  with  mortar 
entregar,  have  truce 
entrelaisar,  interrupt 
entrencar,  break 


1  No  verb  enfalagar  found;  enfalaga,  however,  exists  in  Mod.  Prov. 
(see  Mistral,  I,  906),  and  enfalagar  is  in  Catalan.  It  probably  existed 
in  O.Prov. 

2  This  word  is  very  obscure. 

'We  should  expect  enfranhemen  here,  as  the  verb  "to  break"  is 
enfranher,  coming  fron^  effringere.  Enfranchamen  and  enfrancha  are 
found  in  the  same  Gascon  text  a  few  pages  apart,  and  seem  to  be  dialect 
forms. 

*  Engarrar,  formed  on  garra,  leg,  first  means  "to  injure  in  the  knee," 
then  injure  in  any  way. 

5  Concrete  force,  with  an  idea  of  the  instrument. 

6  See  parasyntheta,  p.  527.  Entaulamen  has  collective  force.  It  is 
clearly  formed  on  taula,  table,  and  not  on  entaular. 

'  As  the  verb  is  entervar,  entervamen  might  be  expected.  Entergar 
would,  however,  be  the  phonetic  development  of  interrogare. 

8  As  well  as  the  more  usual  meaning  of  "cover  with  earth,"  "bury." 


96 


AVORD-FORMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 


entricamen,  intricacy,  running  over 

en  ujamen,  annoyance,  see  enojamen 

enverenamen,  poisoning 

envilhamen,^  cheapness 

environamen,  circle 

envolopamen,  envelopment 

eretamen,  heredity 

erramen,  wandering 

esajamen,  investigation 

esalsamen,  see  eisausamen 

escalfamen,  heating 

escampamen,  effusion 

escoltivamen,'^  cultivation 

escomergamen,  excommunication 

esconjuramen,^  (charm  in  conjur- 
ing) 

escuramen,  cleaning 

esgardamen,  glance 

eslenegamen,  slip,  slide 

eslevamen,  raising 

eslumenamen,  illumination 

esmelhoramen,  improvement 

esmendamen,  amendment 

espachamen,  sending  away 

espaventamen,  fright 

esperamen,  hope 

esperitamen,  inspiration,  sugges- 
tion* 

espiamen,  espionage 

esplechamen,^  implements 


entricar,  run  over 

enverenar,  poison 

environar,  surround 
envolopar,  envelope 
eretar,  inherit 
errar,  wander 
esajar,  try 

escalfar,  heat 
escampar,  pour  out 

escomergar,  excommunicate 
esconjurar,  conjure 

escurar,  clean 
esgardar,  look  at 
e{s)lenegar,  slip,  sUp  down 
eslevar,  raise 
eslumenar,  illuminate 
esmelhorar,  improve 
esmendar,  amend 
espachar,  despatch,  discharge 
espaventar,  frighten 
esperar,  hope 


esptar,  spy  on 
csplechar,  exploit 


1  No  verb.  Formed  on  the  adjective  vilh  {"!).  See  parasyntheta, 
p.  527. 

2  No  verb  escoUivar.  The  word  may  be  a  prefix-formation  or  a 
parasyntheton.     See  nominal  prefixes,  p.  475;  and  parasyntheta,  p.  527. 

'  Concrete  force,  showing  the  idea  of  the  instrument  (for  conjuring). 

♦  No  verb  found.  The  word  seems  to  be  formed  on  the  noun  esperit, 
spirit. 

'  Shows  collective  force.  The  word  is  apparently  not  derived  di- 
rectly from  the  verb  esplechar.  Explicitum  existed  in  Lat.,  and  is  given 
by  Du  Cange  with  the  meaning  of  "implement."  This  would  give 
esplech,  and  the  collective  force  maj"^  have  been  contributed  by  the  suffix 
-AMEN  added  to  the  noun. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


97 


esproamen,  proof 
espurgamen,  purgation 
esquintamen,  tearing 
esquivamen,  hindering,  obstacle 
estamen,  stopping-place^  (L) ;  state 

(R) 

estatjamen,  delay 

estrangolamen,  strangling 

estranhamen,  estrangement 

exaltamen,  see  eisausameri 

examinamen,  examination,  test 

fachilhamen,  enchantment 

fadiamen,    prohibition,    protesta- 
tion 

fendilhamen,^  crevice 

fermalhamen,^  buckle 

figuramen*     (a     term     used    in 
geomancy) 

finamen,  end 

flagelamen,  beating 

fonsamen,  foundation 

forgetamen,  expulsion 

formigamen,  swarming 

fortificamen,  fortification 

fraudamen,  fraud 

freganien,  rubbing 

fretamen,  rubbing 

fructifiamen,  fructification 

frustramen,  frustration,  disap- 
pointment 

gaimentanien,  groaning 

gardejamen,  inspection,  survey 

gastamen,  spoihng 

gatjamen,  seizure 

gavanhamen,  damage,  injury 


esproar,  prove,  try 
espurgar,  purge 
esquintar,  tear 
esquivar,  avoid 
estar,  stand 

estatjar,  prop  up,  support 
estrangolar,  strangle 
estranhar,  estrange 

exaniinar,  examine 
fachilhar,  bewitch 
fadiar,  take  pains 

fendilhar,  cleave 


finar,  end 

flagelar,  beat 

fonsar,  found  (?) 

forgetar,  cast  out 

formigar,  swarm 

fortificar,  fortify 

fraudar,  defraud 

fregar,  rub 

fretar,  rub 

fructifiar,  fructify 

frustrar,  flog;  also  frustrate,  in 

one  example 
gaimentar,  groan 
gardejar,  contemplate 
gastar,  spoil 
gatjar,  pledge,  pay 
gavanhar,  injure 


1  The  idea  of  place  is  exceedingly  unusual  in  this  suffix. 

2  Concrete  force  here.  The  thing  resulting  from  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  seen. 

'  No  verb  found.  The  word  seems  to  be  formed  on  the  noun  fermalh, 
and  the  suffix  added  without  force. 

*  Formed  on  the  noun  figura  ?  Figurar  is  not  found,  but  may  have 
existed.     Cf.  Fr.  and  Sp.  verbs.     No  meaning  is  given  in  Levy. 


98 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


gazanhamcn,  gain 

gazardonainen,  see  guierdonamen 

gemamen,  groaning 

getamen,  see  gitamen 

giramen,  rotation 

gitamen,  throwing  overboard 

goslamen,  taste 

gotejamen,  dripping  away 

governamen,  treatment,  manage- 
ment 

gravamen,  injury,  harm 

greujamen,  grevamen,  damage 

grondilhamen,  tale-telhng 

giddamen  or  guizamen,  leading, 
conduct 

guierdonamen,^  reward,  rewarding 

guinhamen,  wink,  sign 

intramen,  entry 

inviscamen,  viscosity,  sliminess 

iramen,  anger 

isligamen,  instigation 

jutjamen,  judgment 

laizamen,  spotting 

largamen,  remission,  dispensation 

lasamen,  binding,  joining,  fetter 

latinamen,^  erudition 

lauzengamen,  calumny 

lavamen,  washing,  etc. 

leujamen,  lightening 

levamen,  elevation 

liuramen,  delivery 

lochamen,  struggle,  combat 

lonhamen,  self-removal 

lotjameti,*  quarters,  lodging 

lunamen,^  lunation 


gazanhar,  gain 

gemar,  groan 

getar,  throw 

girar,  turn 

gitar,  throw 

goslar,  taste 

gotejar,  drop 

governor,  guide,  manage 

gravar,  injure 
greujar,  injure 
grondilhar,  mutter 
giiidar  or  guizar,  guide 

guierdonar,^  reward 

guinhar,  wink 

intrar,  enter 

inviscar,  catch,  ensnare 

irar,-  be  angry 

istigar,  instigate 

jutjar,  judge 

laizar,  stain 

largar,  relax,  discontinue 

lasar,  bind 

lauzengar,  slander,  deceive 

lavar,  wash 

leujar,  hghten 

levar,  raise 

liurar,  deliver 

lochar,  struggle 

lonhar,  remove 

lotjar,  lodge 


1  Raynouard  gives  only  gnzardonamen. 

2  The  infinitive  probably  exists,  though  it  is  not  certain.     See  Levy, 
IV,  237,  under  irat. 

» Formed  on  the  noun  latin,  but  has  abstract  force. 
<  Cf.  the  Engl,  "lodging"  or  "dwelling."     Indeed,  the  sufii.\  -ING 
may  itself  be  compared  with  -AMEN.     See  -ING  in  Murray. 
6  A  formation  on  luna,  but  having  abstract  force. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


99 


maduramen,  maturity 

maisnamen,^  welcome 

maizonamen,^  lodging 

malmenamen,^  ill-treatment 

mancamen,  lack 

mandamen,  command,  dominion, 
etc. 

manjamen.  eating,  food 

maridamen,  marriage 

martelamen  (de  dens) ,  chattering 
of  teeth 

martiriamen,  torture 

meitadamen,  halving 

melhoramen,  improvement 

memhramen,  remembrance 

menamen,  guidance 

mendamen,  improvement 

rnercejamen,  indulgence,  pity 

mesclamen,  mixture 

mesprezamen,  scorn 

mezuramen,  measuring 

ministramen,  aid 

molhamen,  wetting 

montamen,  climbing 

mostramen,  proof 

mudamen,  change 

multiplicamen,  multiplication 

muramen,  walling  up 

murmuramen,  murmuring 

naframen,  wound,  damage 

navejamen,^  ship,  voyage 

nedejamen,  cleansing,  purifica- 
tion 

negamen,  denial 

negocejamen,  act  of  trading 

nocejamen,  wedding 
nomnamen,  naming 


madurar,  mature 


malmenar,  ill-treat 
mancar,  lack 
mondar,  command 

manjar,  eat 

maridar,  marry 

martelar  (de  dens),  chatter 

tnartiriar,  torture 
meitadar,  halve 
melhorar,  improve 
membrar,  remember 
menar,  lead,  guide 
mendar,  improve 
mercejar,  beg  for  mercy 
mesclar,  mix 
mesprezar,  scorn 
mezurar,  measure 
ministrar,  minister 
molhar,  wet 
montar,  climb 
mostrar,  show,  prove 
mudar,  change 
multiplicar,  multiply 
murar,  wall  up 
rnurmurar,  murmur 
nafrar,  wound 
navejar,  navigate 
nedejar,  purify 

negar,  deny 

(only  negociar,  do  business,  is 

found) 
nocejar,  have  wedding 
nomnar,  name 


I  Formations  on  the  noun  maizon,  but  having  abstract  force. 
'  See  also  hybrids,  p.  579. 

*  Concrete  force.     The  instrument  for  accomphshing  the  action  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  is  denoted. 


100 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


nozamen,^  joining,  alliance 
nozelamen,  knotting 
oblidamen,  forgetfulness 
oltrecujamen,   presumption;  also 

imagination,  conceit 
onramen,  honor 
orhamen,  blinding 
ordenamen,  order,  arrangement 
orgolhamen,  pride 
ostamen,  shortening 
panamen,  theft 
paramen,  ornament 
parelhamen,  interview 
parlamen,  interview 
pauzamen,  rest 
pavamen,^  pavement 
pejoramcn,  deterioration 
penhoramen,  pledge,  security 
perbocamen,  rough  casting 
perdonamen,  pardon 
perilhamen,  risking,  endangering 
per  pauzamen,  proposition 
perpensamen,  meditation 
perseveramen,  perseverance 
pertorhamen,  disturbance 
pescamen,     fishing,     right    of 

fishing 
pesejamen,    act    of    breaking, 

shipwreck 
pezamen  weighing 
pilhamen,  plundering 


nozar,  bind 
nozelar,  knot 
oblidar,  forget 
oltrecujar,  rave 

onrar,  honor 
orbar,  blind 
ordenar,  order 
orgolhar{se),  be  proud 
ostar,  take  away 
panar,  steal 
parar,  adorn 
parelh,^  pair;  interview 
parlar,  talk 
pauzar,  rest 
pavar,  pave 
pejorar,  deteriorate 
penhorar,  give  pledge  for 
perbocar,  roughcast 
perdonar,  pardon 
perilhar,  endanger 
perpauzar,  propose 
perpensar,  meditate 
perseverar,  persevere 
pertorbar,  disturb 
pescar,  fish 

pesejar,  break  to  pieces 

pezar,  weigh 
pilhar,  plunder 


1  A  Lat.  nodamen  (not  nodamentum)  exists. 

'A  verb  parelhar  is  found  but  has  the  meaning  of  "to  prepare," 
and  is  of  different  origin. 

'  It  is  interesting  here  to  compare  the  Fr.  forms  pavement  and  paver. 
Pavement  comes  from  pavimentum,  and  paver  seems  to  have  been  derived 
from  it  through  the  analogy  of  several  pairs  of  words.  See  paver  in 
Die.  Gen.,  though  Diez  (p.  656)  suggests  a  change  of  conjugation  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  verb.  Pavamen  is  probably  due  to  the  analogy  of 
the  Fr.  form,  though  it  might  have  come  from  pavimen  with  a  change  of 
suSix.  See  Cohn,  109,  note,  and  for  the  form  pazimen,  also  the  note  t  at 
the  end  of  the  list  of  words  in  -IMEN,  p.  109,  below. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


101 


plagamen,^  wound 

plaidejamen,  litigation 

jplantamen,  planting 

plegamen,  suppleness 

-ploramen,  affliction 

poblamen,  peopling;  right  of  set- 
tling 

podamen,  cutting,  breaking 

pojatnen,''  hill,  height;  ascent; 
ascension 

polsamen,  pulsation 

pregamen,^  prayer 

preparamen,  preparation 

prepauzamen,  intention,  resolution 

prestamen,  taking  of  oath 

prezentamen,  presentation 

prezicamen,''  exhortation;  sermon 

prezuramen,^  rennet  for  curdling 
milk 

proamen,  proof 

profechamen,  profit 

prononciamen,  pronunciation 

protestamen,  protestation 

purgamen,^  purification;   purge 

querelhamen,  complaining,  com- 
plaint 

rasaziamen,  satiation 

ratifiamen,  ratification 

raubamen,  theft 

razonamen,  reasoning 

refinamen,  end 

reflamamen,  heating 

refrenamen,  prudence,  reserve 

relaisamen,  relaxation 

remembramen,  remembrance 


plagar,  wound 
plaidejar,  go  to  law 
plantar,  plant 
plegar,  bend 
plorar,  weep 
poblar,  people 

podar,  cut,  break 
pojar^  ascend 

polsar,  beat 
pregar,  pray 
preparar,  prepare 
prepauzar,  propose,  present 
prestar,  lend 
prezentar,  present 
prezicar,  preach 
prezurar,  press,  squeeze 

proar,  try,  prove 
profechar,  profit,  be  useful 
prononciar,  pronounce 
protestar,  protest 
purgar,  purify 
querelhar,  complain 

rasaziar,  satiate 
ratifiar,  ratify 
raubar,  rob 
razonar,  reason 
refinar,  cease,  end 
reflamar,  heat 
refrenar,  restrain 
relaisar,  relax 
remembrar,  remember 


1  Plagamen,  pregamen,  and  prezuramen  seem  to  have  only  concrete 
force.  Prezuramen  is  one  of  the  few  clear  examples  of  a  word  ending  in 
-AMEN  having  the  idea  of  the  instrument  for  accomplishing  the  action 
expressed  by  the  verb. 

2  Words  that  seem  to  have  both  abstract  and  concrete  force  are 
pojamen,  prezicamen,  and  purgamen.  The  latter  has  the  concrete  force 
seen  in  prezuramen.  Prezicamen  and  pregamen  (in  note  1)  seem  to  denote 
things  produced  by  the  action  of  the  verbs  on  which  they  are  formed. 


SANTA  BAP.BAiiA 


102 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


renhamen,  reign 

renonciameti,  renunciation 

renovdamen,  renewal 

resinhamen,  resignation 

resemblamen,  resemblance 

retardamen,  delay 

relornamen,  return 

rerocamen,  revocation 

ronsainen,  overturning 

ruamen,^  wrinkle 

sacrifiamen,  sacrifice 

sadolamen,  satiation 

salvamen,  saving 

saziamen,  satiation 

senhoramen,^  superiority,   domi- 
nation 

senhorejamen,  superiority, 
nation 

sermonamen,  preaching 

serramen,  stricture 

signifiamen,  signification 

sinalinfamen,  elision 

sincopamen,  syncopation 

sincopizamen,  fainting 

soanamen,  scorn,  disdain 

sobreversamen,  overflowing 

sonamen,  ringing,  resounding 

sonjamcn,  dream 

tardamen,  delay 

teisamen,^  weaving 

termenamen,  limit,  bound 

testimoniamen,  testimony 

tiramen,  twitching 

tocamen,*  sense  of  touch 

torbamen,  perturbation 

tornejamen,  tournament 

trabalhamen,  trouble,  agitation 


rcnhar,  reign 
renonciar,  renounce 
renovelar,  renew 
resinhar,  resign 
resemblar,  resemble 
retardar,  delay 
retornar,  return 
revocar,  revoke 
ronsar,  overturn 
7-uar,  wrinkle 
sacrifiar,  sacrifice 
sadolar,  satiate 
salvar,  save 
saziar,  satiate 


domi-     senhorejar,  master 


sermonar,  preach 
serrar,  confine 
signifiar,  signify 
sinalinfar,  elide 
sincopar,  syncopate 
sincopizar,  faint 
soanar,  disdain 
sobreversar,  overflow 
sonar,  resound 
sonjar,  dream 
iardar,  delay 
teiser,  weave 
termenar,  limit,  end 
testimoniar,  give  testimony 
tirar,  twitch 
tocar,  touch 
iorbar,  disturb 
tornejar,  turn  about 
trabalhar,  torment 


1  Concrete  force. 

2  Formed  on  the  noun  senhor,  and  having  abstract  force. 
3 -AMEN  instead  of  -EMEN. 

'  *A  specialized  meaning  here,  as  in  the  Engl,  "hearing"  =  sense  of 
hearing. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


103 


trahucamen,  stumbling,  fall 
trachamen,  treatise 
trasportamen,  transportation 
trastornamen,  upsetting 
tremblamen,  trembling 
trencamen,  cutting,  rupture 
udolamen,  howling 
uzamen,  usage,  habit 
vanamen,  boasting 
variamen,  variation 
venjamen,  vengeance 
verenamen,  poisoning 
vizitamen,'\  visit 


trabucar,  stumble 
trachar,  treat 
trasportar,  transport 
trastornar,  upset 
tremblar,  tremble 
trencar,  cut 
udolar,  howl 
uzar,  use 
vanar,  boast 
variar,  vary 
venjar,  avenge 
verenar,  poison 
vizitar,  visit 


Next  comes  the  list  of  words  with  the  suffix  -EMEN: 


abaiemen,  lowering 

acorremen,  increase 

acreisemen,  increase 

aduzemen,  conduct  (implies  infini- 
tive *aduzer  instead  of  aduire) 

airemen  (Levy  gives  no  meaning, 
and  the  word  is  not  clear) 

apertenemen,  one's  own  sphere 

aprememen,  compulsion 

ardemen,  burning 

atendemen,  waiting 

aucizemen,  killing  (imphes  infini- 
tive *aucizer  instead  of  aucire) 

cazemen,  origin,  extraction  (no 
meaning  of  fall) 

colemen,  worship,  reverence 

complanhemen,  complaint 

complazemen,  pleasure,  satisfaction 

comprendemen,  inclosed  space^ 

1  Concrete  force  denoting  a  place, 
nearly  all  pure  abstracts. 


abatre,  beat  down 
acorre,  run  up 
acreiser,  increase 


apertener,  belong 
apremer,  compel 
ardre,  burn 
atendre,  wait 


cazer,  fall 

coler,  worship 
complanher,  complain 
complazer,  accede  to 
comprendre,  include,  comprise 

The  other  words  in  -EMEN  are 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are  adornam.en,  adornment <adornamentum 
(see  Olcott,  128,  and  recent  Lat.  dictionaries);  coroyiamen,  crowning< 
coronamentum  (see  Cooper,  86);  enterpretamen,  interpretation<t?i^erpre- 
tamentum;  ferramen,  iron  tool,  having,  therefore,  concrete  iorce<ferra- 
menium;  liamen,  head-dress,  interesting  on  account  of  its  specialized 
n'iea.nm^Klig amentum;  inetjmnen,  remedy,  niedicine<wedicamen<Mw?;  and 
moderamen,  moderationKmoderamentiim. 


104 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


conqueremen,  conquest 

constituemcn,^  foundation,  found- 
ing 

constrenhemen,  constraint 

contenemen,  maintenance 

conlradizemen,  contradiction  (im- 
plies infinitive  *contradizer,  in- 
stead of  contradire,  contradict) 

contrafazemen,  counterfeiting  (im- 
plies infinitive  *contrafazer, 
counterfeit) 

coniranhemen,  constraint 

corremen,  course 

corrompemen,  injuring,  corrup- 
tion 

creisemen,  increase,  improvement 

decreisemen,  decrease 

delinquemen,^  evil  deed,  guilt 

derompemen,  interruption 

desconoisemen,  misunderstanding 

descorrernen,  running  about 

desdizemen,  denial  (implies  infini- 
tive *desdizer,  instead  of  des- 
dire,  deny 

destrenhemen,  embarrassment 

detenemen,  detention 

detrazemen,  calumny  (implies  de- 
Irazer,  for  detraire,  detract) 

empenhemen,  emission 

emprendemen,  enterprise 

enclauzemen,  confinement  (im- 
plies enclauzer,  for  endaure, 
shut  in) 

enfenhemen,  deception 

entendemen,  intelligence 

entretenemen,  entertainment 

envelhezimeri;  aging 

esbatemen,  gambol,  merriment 

escomovemen,  stiring  up,  excite- 
ment 


conquirer,  conquerre,  conquer 
constituir,  constitute 

constrenher,  constrain 
contener,  contain 


contranher,  constrain 
corre,  run 
corrompre,  corrupt 

creiser,  increase 
decreiser,  decrease 
delinquir,    abandon,    be    delin- 
quent 
derompre,  interrupt 
desconoiser,  misunderstand 
descorre,  run  about 


destrenher,  press,  force 
detener,  detain 


empenher,  push,  put  forth 
emprendre,  undertake 


etifenher,  feign 
entendre,  understand 
entretener,  entertain 
envelhezir,  grow  old 
esbalre,  gambol 
escomover,  move,  stir  up 


1  -EMEN  instead  of  -IMEN. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


105 


escomprendemen,  arson 

esmovemen,  movement 

esparsemen,  pouring 

esperdemen,  despondency 

estendemen,  extension 

estenhemen,  extinguishing 

estorsemen,  deliverance 

estreisemen  (R),  estreisedat  (ac- 
cording to  Levy),  narrowness 

estrenhemen,  crowding,  pressing 

fazemen,  doing,  fashion  (impUes 
*fazer,  instead  of  faire,  do) 

fenhemen,  fabrication,  fiction 

fondemtn,  ruin 

franhemen,  breaking 

gememen,^  also  gimemen,  groaning 

jazemen,  lying  together 

maldizemen,  malediction  (impUes 
infinitive  *maldizer,  instead  of 
maldire,  curse 

mantcnemen,'^  maintenance 

)narfondemen ,-  glanders 

metemen,  putting,  setting 

mordemen,  bite 

movemen,  movement 

naisemen,  birth,  beginning,  race 

nozemen,  damage 

onhemen,  ointment 

perdemen,  loss 

planhemen,  complaint 

plazevien,  will,  pleasure 

prometemen,  promise 

queremen,  search 

requeremen,  claim,  demand 

resplandemen,  resplendence 

resorzemen,  resurrection 

retraz&men,  regret,  affliction  (im- 
plies *retrazer  instead  of  retraire) 

rompemen,  breaking 

solvemen,  discharge,  acquittal 

i-EMEN  instead  of  -IMEN. 
2  See  also  hybrids,  p.  579. 


escomprendre,  burn 
esmover,  move 
esparser,  pour  out 
esperdre,  distract 
estendre,  extend 
estenher,  extinguish 
estorser,  twist;  free,  save 
verb  is  estreisar,  narrow 

estrenher,  press 


fenher,  feign 
fondre,  melt  away 
franker,  break 
gemir,  groan 
jazer,  lie 


mantener,  maintain 
marfondre,  chill  (a  horse) 
metre,  put 
mordre,  bite 
mover,  move 
naiser,  be  born 
nozer,  injure 
onher,  anoint 
perdre,  lose 
planher,  complain 
plazer,  please 
prometre,  promise 
querer,  querir,  seek 
requerre,  requerer,  claim 
resplandre,  shine 
resorzer,  run  through 


rompre,  break 
solver,  loose,  free 

Gemimen  is  also  found. 


106 


Word-Formation  in  Proven(;'al 


sostenemen,  support 

soslrazemen,  subtraction  (implies 

infinitive   sostrazer,   instead   of 

sostraire,  subtract) 
tendemen,  tension 
tenemen,  tenancy 
tolemen,  separation,  removal 
torsemen,  twisting 
trazemen,  act  of  throwing  (implies 

infinitive     *trazer,    instead    of 

iraire,  draw) 
vencemen,  conquest,  victory 
vezemen,  sight 


soslencr,  sustain 


tendre,  stretch 
tener,  hold 
tolre,  take  away 
torser,  twist 


veneer,  conquer 
vezer,  see 


Lastly,  is  given  the  list  of  words  containing  the  suffix 
-IMEN: 


nbelhimen,  pleasure,  satisfaction 
acolhimen,  welcome 
afigimen,  adjunction 
afligimen,  pain 
aforlimen,  solidity,  power 
aizimen,     adjustment,     arrange- 
ment (?) 
aparturimen,  birth 
asentimen,  assent 
aunimen,  scorn 
avenimen,  arrival 
handimen,  proclamation,  ban 
baudinien,^  courage,  trust 
cabimen,  employment;    use 

circoncezimen,  cutting 
cofimen,  seasoning 
complimen,  accomplishment 
condimen,  seasoning 
confimen,  see  cofimen 
conoisimen,^  acquaintance 
conseguimen,  reaching,  attaining 
consentimen,  consent 

'  The  verb  baudir  is  not  found. 
haudimen  by  a  loss  of  the  prefix. 
2 -IMEN  instead  of  -EMEN. 


abelhir,  please 
acolhir,  welcome 
afigir,  adjoin 
afligir,  afflict 
afortir,  strengthen 
aizir,  welcome 

aparturir,  bear 
asentir,  assent 
aunir,  scorn 
avenir,  come  up 
bandir,  proclaim 

cabir,  as  well  as  caber,  find  place 

for  (have  space) 
circoncezir,  for  circoncire,  cut 
cofir,  preserve,  season 
complir,  accomplish 
condir,  season 

conoiser,  know 
conseguir,  attain 
consentir,  consent 

Baudirnen  seems  to  be  from  es- 


Formation  of  Nouns 


107 


convertimen,  conversion 

defalhimen,  absence,  lack 

defugimen,  flight 

demolimen,  demolishment 

departimen,  separation,  division 

deperimen,  perishing 

desazimen,  deprivation  of  prop- 
erty, abandonment 

descobrimen,  disclosing,  exposing 

desconfimen,  rout 

desconfizemen,  rout 

deservimen,  merit 

desestablimen,  destruction,  see  dez- 

desfornimen,^  wrong,  hurt 

deslenquimen,  relinquishment 

destru{z)imen,  destruction 

desvestimen,  cession,  abdication 

devezimen,  division 

dezestablimen,'^  destruction 

dezobezimen,  disobedience 

eisernimen,  wisdom 

eisimen,  exit,  end 

elegimen,  election 

embandimen,  order,  ordinance 

embolezimen,  heat,  anger 

enantimen,  advantage 

enfecimen,  infection 

engordimen,  stiffening 

enluzimen,  whitewashing 

enquizimen,  investigation 

enseguimen,  following,  conse- 
quence 

envazimen,  attack 

envelzimen,  humiliation 

envergonkimen,  causing  of  shame 

envestimen,  placing  in  possession 

esbaimen,  anxiety 


convertir,  convert 
defalhir,  fail,  lack 
defugir,  fly 
demolir,  demoUsh 
departir,  divide 
deperir,  perish 
desazir,  let  go  of 

descobrir,  disclose 
desconfir,  discomfit 
desconfizer  for  desconfir 
deservir,  deserve 


deslenquir,  give  up 
destru{z)ir,  destroy 
desvestir,  divest,  take  off 
devezir,  divide 
dezestablir,  disestablish 
dezobezir,  disobey 
eisernir,  discern 
eisir,  go  out 
elegir,  elect 
embandir,  seize 
embolhezir,  boil  up 
enantir,  advance 
enfecir,  poison,  infect 
engordir,  stiffen 
enluzir,  whitewash 
enquizir,  investigate 
enseguir,  follow 

envazir,  attack 

envelzir,  degrade,  humiliate 

envergonhir,  shame 

envestir,  invest,  put  in  possession 

esbair,  astonish 


1  Probably  is  formed  of  fornitnen,  supply,  provision,  plus  the  nega- 
tive prefix  DES-.  Desfornir  is  not  found.  See  nominal  prefixes, 
p.  470. 

2  The  opposite  word,  establimen,  is  derived  from  a  word  formed  in 
Lat. 


108 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


esbaudimen,  rejoicing,  gaiety 

escarnimeti,  insult 

escautrimen,^  slyness,  cunning 

escopimen,  spitting 

escremimen,  fighting 

esciirzimen,  darkness 

esdevenimeri,  happening 

esjauzimen,  contentment 

esmarrimen,  uneasiness 

estobezimen,  astonishment 

faidimen,^  confiscated  property 

falhimen,  error,  fault 

fenimen,  accomplishment,  end 

ferimen,  striking 

fornimen,  provision,  maintenance 

fugimen,  flight 

gandimen,  refuge,  safety 

garimen,  safety,  protection 

garnimen,  equipment 

glatimen,  howling 

grazimen,  thanks 

grunimen,  growling 

guerpimen,  leaving,  quitting 

languimen,  dejection 

malazaulimen,^  discourteous,  in- 
sulting words 

niarrimen,  sadness 

negrezimen,  blackening 

obrimen,  act  of  opening 

ordimen,  warp,  weaving 

partimen,  division;  departure; 
dislocation;   a  kind  of  verse 

penlimen,  repentance 

pervenimen,  revenue 

podestadimen,^  power 


esbaudir,  rejoice 
escarnir,  insult 

escopir,  spit 
escremir,  fight 
escurzir,  become  dark 
esdevenir,  become 
esjauzir,  rejoice 
esmarrir,  sadden 
estobezir,  astonish 
faidir,  banish 
falhir,  fail 
fenir,  end 
ferir,  strike 
fornir,  provide 
fugir,  fly,  flee 
gandir,  guarantee 
garir,  protect 
garnir,  equip 
glatir,  howl 
grazir,  thank 
grunir,  growl 
guerpir,  pack  off 
languir,  languish 


niarrir,  grieve 

negrezir,  blacken 

obrb\  open 

ordir,  warp,  weave 

partir,  divide;  remove;  propose 

peniir,  repent 
pervenir,  reach,  belong 
podestat,  power 


>  No  verb  is  found.     The  word  is  obscure,  however. 

2  A  kind  of  concrete  force  is  here,  denoting  the  thing  coming  as  the 
result  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb.  The  other  words  with  this 
sufRx  are  pure  abstracts. 

3  See  also  hybrids,  p.  578,  below. 

<  Apparently  formed  on  a  noun  ^^^thout  change  of  meaning. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


109 


prautimen,  act  of  trampling  under 

foot 
provenimen,  revenue  ( ?) 
poirimen,  rottenness 
polimen,  polishing 
prezumimen,  presumption 
pruzimen,  itching 
raubimen,  ravishment 
rugimen,  flatulence 
seguimen,  accompaniment 
servimen,  servitude 
sofrimen,  suffering,  privation 
somsimen,  absorption 
iarimen,  drying  up 
tradimen,  treachery 
valimen,  price,  merit 
venimen,  arrival 
vilzim€n,'\  degradation 


prautir,  trample  underfoot 

provenir,  originate,  proceed 

poirir,  rot 

polir,  polish 

prezimir,  presume 

pruzer,^  itch 

raubir,  ra\'ish 

rugir,  roar 

seguir,  accompany 

servir,  serve 

sofrir,  suffer 

somsii',  swallow  up 

tarir,  dry  up 

tradir,  betray 

valer,^  be  worth 

venir,  come 

vilzir,  degrade 


The  collectives  in  -MENTA  from  the  Latin  plural 
-MENTA,  mentioned  above,-  will  now  be  given.  Under 
-AMENTA,  joined  to  the  stems  of  verbs  in  -ar,  we  find: 


causamenta,  shoes 
ferramenta,  ironwork 


causar,  to  shoe 
ferrar,  to  iron 


and,  on  a  noun, 

osamenta,  bones  os,  bone 

Under  -EMENTA  joined  to  stems  of  verbs  in  -er,  is: 
franhementa,  fragments  franhcr,  break 

1  The  infinitive  is  found  only  with  the  ending  -er. 

2  P.  87. 


t  An  interesting  word  is  pazimen,  pavement,  not  given  above  because 
of  its  Lat.  origin.  Its  source  is  clearly  patimentum,  which  should  give 
pavimen.  The  z  for  v  is  difficult  to  explain.  Grandgent  (48,  sec.  5) 
explains  it  by  the  analogy  of  aizimen,  but  the  connection  between  the 
two  words  does  not  seem  clear.  His  remark  that  pazimen  =  pavamen 
hardly  seems  exact  (see  p.  100,  n.  3).  Another  form  of  pavimentum  is 
paymen.  A  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  munimen;  an  obscure  one  is  engarzi- 
men. 


110  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

-AN,    -ANA 

-AN  and  -ANA  in  Provencal  are  derived  from  the  Latin 
-ANUS  and  -ANA,  used  in  Latin  in  forming  both  adjec- 
tives and  nouns.  In  forming  nouns,  -AN  regularly  gives 
the  idea  of  the  inhabitant  of  a  place  (as  castellanus  > 
Provengal  castelan,  inhabitant  of  a  castle,  lord  of  a  manor) 
and  also  that  of  a  person  addicted  to  a  subject  (as  negro- 
mancian  on  negromancia,  necromancy).  Besides  these 
uses,  we  find  -AN  has  one  or  two  others,  that  will  be  fully 
described  below. 

As  for  the  feminine  form,  -ANA,  the  meaning  of  "the 
inhabitant  of  a  place"  seems  to  be  generally  absent, 
although  such  a  feminization  as  castelana  is  found  in  Levy.^ 
There  are  only  a  few  words  with  this  ending,  however,  and 
most  of  these  appear  to  be  substantive  uses  of  words 
originally  adjectives. 

Lender  -AN  with  the  meaning  of  (1)  "inhabitant  of  a 
place"  or  (2)  "person  addicted  to  a  thing"  attached  to 
nouns,  are  found  the  following  words: 

arman,  armed  man,  one  addicted  nrma,  arm 

to  arms 

astronomian,  astronomer  aslronomia,  astronomy 

estatjan,  lodger,  dweller  estatge,  dwelling 

forestall,  stranger  forest,  forest 

gazalhan,-    one    who    raises    live  gazalha,     (1)    community;     (2) 

stock  on  shares  lease  of  live  stock 

geomancian,  geomant  geomancia,  geomancy 

.gramairian,  grammarian  gramaire,  grammar 

letran,  master  ( ?) ,  one  addicted  letra,  letter 

to  letters 
marquezan,^     inhabitant     of     La 

Marche 

1  I,  226. 

-  There  is  also  a  feminine  form,  gazalhana.     For  gazalha,  see  above, 
p.  79.  n.  f. 

'Apparently  u  douhlf;  suffix  here. 


Formation  of  Nouns  111 

mercadan,  merchant  mercat,  market 

mesatjan,  messenger  mesatge,  message 

negromancian,  necromancer  negromancia,  necromancy 

omicidan,  murderer  omicidi,  murder 

parofian,  parishioner  parofia,  parish 

])asatjan,'\  passenger  pasatge,  passage 

Besides  the  use  of  -AN  just  treated,  the  ending  is 
found  with  other  meanings.  In  a  good  many  nouns 
with  this  ending,  -AN  represents  nothing  but  the  present 
participle  of  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  used  substantive- 
ly; in  a  few  examples  the  suffix  appears  not  to  change  the 
meaning  of  the  simple  word,  whereas  in  one  or  two  cases, 
the  meaning  it  gives  is  hard  to  classify;  and  other  words 
are  obscure  in  form. 

1.  In  such  words  as  auzulan,  demoran,  levari,  nianan, 
marejan,  montan,  parlan,  pezan,  and  poblan^  the  ending 
-AN  is  the  sign  of  the  present  participle  of  verbs 
in  -ar. 

2.  In  planetan,  piifan,  and  vergan  the  suffix  appears  to 
give  no  change  of  meaning  to  the  simple  nouns  planeta, 
planet,  puta,  prostitute,  and  verga,  branch. 

In  putan,  however,  -AN  seems  to  represent  simply  a 
different  case-ending.     See  putana,  below. 

In  planetan  and  vergan,  the  -AN  may  have  been  added 
to  form  adjectives  on  puta  and  verga,  these  adjectives 
later  being  used  substantively. 

3.  In  albaran  and  bausan  the  force  of  the  suffix  is  less 
easy  to  classify. 

albaran,  however,  was  probably  originally  an  adjec- 
tive. It  means  scrap  of  paper  or  ticket,  and  was  prob- 
ably derived  from  albar,  sapwood,  or  alburnum  (Latin 

1  For  the  meaning  of  these  words,  see  nouns  formed  from  verbs,  pp. 
548-49. 


fAlso,  of  Lat.  origin:  castelan<castellanus,  and  capeZan<Low  Lat. 
cappellanus. 


112  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

alburnum),  the  new  wood  next  the  bark  of  a  tree.  Albaran 
was  apparently  a  small  article  made  of  this  alhar} 

hausan,  a  kind  of  horse,  also  a  standard  of  the  Tem- 
plars, is  surely  not  derived  from  baus,  an  abyss,  and  is 
probably  not  a  Provengal  formation.^ 

4.  Clear  examples  of  adjectives  used  substantively  are 

seen  in — 

ferran,^  gray  horse  ferran,  graj^ 

foran,  foreigner  foran,  foreign 

persan,'\  Persian  persan,  persian 

-ANA 

Words  in  -ANA  are  fewer  in  number  than  those  in 
-AN  and  will  be  studied  individually.  Exclusive  of 
such  feminizations  of  masculine  words  as  castelana  and 
gazalhana,  these  are: 

1  Cf.  the  Lat.  liber,  book,  with  its  original  meaning  of  "bast." 

2  Korting,  No.  1,198,  suggests  balteanus  from  balteus,  a  belt  or  girdle, 
as  source.  This  would  be  a  possible  source  both  as  regards  the  form  and 
the  meaning.  The  development  is  phonetically  regular,  and  "belted" 
was  used  to  describe  dappled  horses.  The  word,  therefore,  was  origi- 
nally an  adjective,  as  might  be  seen  from  the  phrase  cheval  baugant.  See 
Romania,  XXIV,  586;  also  XXXV,  456.  The  second  meaning,  a  stand- 
ard of  the  Templars,  undoubtedly  refers  to  its  color.  The  Fr.  bauQant 
may  be  compared  with  bausan,  and  is,  in  all  probability,  a  borrowing. 
For  its  original  form  see  the  note  in  Romania,  XXIV,  588.  See  also 
Rom.  Stud.,  I,  260,  where  the  It.  balsano,  dotted  with  white,  is  explained 
as  coming  from  balzare,  to  ■  leap,  because  one  color  stands  out  from 
another.  But  even  balzare  may  be  connected  with  balteus.  See  Meyer- 
Lubke,  III,  20. 

3  See  Rom..  Stud.,  I,  258. 

t  A  word  of  this  kind  of  Lat.  origin  is  crestian,  cretin,  from  christianus. 
Christian. 

Other  words  of  Lat.  origin  are  mejan,  inteTmcdiaryKmedianus; 
7nercan,  merchant< ??»e?-ca?is,  from  m.ercor;  opidan,  citizenKoppidanus; 
ortolan,  gardener Khortulanus.  Still  other  words  not  Prov.  formations 
and  probably  of  Lat.  origin  are  niblan,  kite  (a  bird  of  prey),  probably 
from  *milvanus,  from  milvus,  and  showing  a  metathesis;  parran,  back- 
garden  (see  Du  Gauge's  paranus) ;  parsan,  district,  from  *partianus  (  ?) 
(partiarius  is  found);  polaii.,  colt,  from  *pullanus,  derived  from  pullus 
(cf.  Fr.  poulain). 


Formation  of  Nouns  113 

bezana:  Not  clear  in  meaning.  Raynouard  gives  bee- 
hive, and  Levy  suggests  sheepskin,  as  in  French  basane. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  probably  not  a  Provengal  formation.^ 

forana,  fair,  or  the  place  in  which  it  is  held:  Probably 
here  we  have  the  adjective  suffix  -AN,  as  in  foran,  foreign, 
taking  this  meaning  by  a  false  etymology,  connecting 
it  with  feira. 

colana,  column:  This  is  probably  simply  the  Latin 
columna,  Provengal  colona,  in  a  different  form,  perhaps 
a  bad  spelling.  Korting^  gives  the  Lombard  colana,  from 
Latin  columna. 

laizana,  dirt,  filth:  Seems  to  be  a  Provengal  formation, 
and  to  be  connected  with  the  verb  laizar,  to  soil,  although 
there  seem  to  be  no  other  cases  of  the  attachment  of  the 
suffix  to  a  verb-stem.^ 

lugana,  opening  in  the  roof:  Seems  to  be  a  Latin  forma- 
tion— liicana — on  the  stem  luc. 

meliana,  noontime:  Is  simply  the  Latin  meridiana 
(compare  the  Old  French  yneriene). 

mercadana,  utensil  of  commerce,  from  mercat,  market : 
Probably  originally  an  adjective,  and  this  word  a  sub- 
stantive use  of  the  feminine. 

mitana,  mitten  mita,      mitten      (compare     the 

French  mitaine) 
pezana,  foot-disease  of  animals         pe,  foot 

putana,  prostitute,  from  pida,  with  the  same  meaning: 
The  -ANA  is  probably  here  not  a  suffix  but  a  case-ending, 
the  word  being  declined  in  Mediaeval  Latin,  puta,  putanis^ 

'  Besana  is  given  in  Du  Cange  with  both  meanings,  but  cited  only 
from  late  texts.     The  Die.  Gen.  derives  basane  from  an  Arabic  bithana. 

2  No.  2,343. 

3  Possibly  the  feminine  form  of  the  present  participle  used  as  a  noun, 
through  the  disappearance  of  some  accompanying  word. 

*  See  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  27,  539. 


114  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

-ANHA,    -ANH,  -ENHA,  -ENGA,  -ENJA,  -ENH,  -ONHA 

The  eiulings  -ANHA  and  -ANH  are  found  in  several 
words  in  Provengal,  and  are  derived  from  a  Latin  -ANEUS, 
used  generally  in  forming  adjectives,  as  extraneus,  and  its 
opposite  of  later  date,  inter aneus,  whose  neuter  plural, 
with  the  meaning  of  "bowels,"  "entrails,"  is  found  in 
several  of  the  Romance  languages.  Then  other  neuter 
plurals  are  found  used  as  substantives,  giving  such 
words  as  montanha  in  Provengal.  Most  of  the  words 
found  in  Provencal  appear  to  be  Latin  formations,  but 
the  following  words  appear  to  have  been  made  in  Pro- 
vengal  by  using  the  suffix  -ANHA : 

coanha,  wool  of  inferior  quality     from  coa,  tail 

(tail-clippings) 
foganha,  kitchen  foe,  fire.    Foganha,  however,  may 

be  from  a  Latin  formation 
malanha,  injury,  evil,  pain  mal,  evil 

mesclanha,  mixture  f  •         mesda,  mixture 

Under  -ANH,  from  -ANEUS,  the  only  possible  Pro- 
vengal  formation  is  guirfanh,  sparrow-hawk,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  same  word  as  the  adjective  grijanh,^  with 
a  metathesis  in  the  first  syllable.  This,  also,  may  not  be 
a  Provengal  formation,  as  it  is  found  also  in  other  lan- 
guages. It  is  not  certain,  even,  that  the  -ANH  here  is 
derived  from  -ANEUS.fj 

»  Originally  meaning  "claw-like,"  then  probably  used  substantively. 
From  grif  (a  post-verbal  from  grifar)  plus  -AXH.  See  Mod.  Lang. 
Notes,  XXII,  49. 


t  Other  words  ending  in  -ANHA,  but  of  Lat.  origin,  are  escanha, 
windlass  i<scamna  [?]),  and  lelanha,  litany< ZtYanio.  For  vendanha, 
see  below. 

tt  Words  of  Lat.  origin  ending  in  -AXH  are  calcanh,  heeKcalcaneum; 
casanh,  03.k< cassmiiuvi  (Essais,  75);  eranh,  spider Karaneus;  escaiih, 
heneh< scamnum;   estanh,  tin<stannium  {Essais,  78). 


Formation  of  Nouns  115 

-ENHA,  -ENJA,  and  -ENGA  (and  in  one  word  -AN- 

HA),   appear  to  represent  the  Latin  -EMI A  in  a  few 

words.     This  ending  appeared  in  Latin  in  hlastemia,  for 

blasphemia,  and  in  vindemia.     From  vindemia,  we  find  a 

Provengal  vendanha,  corresponding  to  a  French  vendange, 

and  probably  influenced  by  it  in  form.     The  other  words 

have  the  vowel  e  instead  of  a.     They  will  be  given  here 

under  the  form  -ENGA/  which  is  the  most  usual,  on  the 

whole. 

hlastenga     (generally     blastenha),  from    hlastemia   for  blasphemia 

blame  (Greek  ^\a(r(f)rjfj.la) 

flatenga,  lying  flatar,  flatter 

laidenga,  hateful  speech  laidir,  insult 

lauzenga,  flattery  lauzar,  praise 

-ENHA  is  also  found  in: 
escopienha,'\  spittle  escopir,  spit 

Following,  therefore,  the  meaning  which  -EMIA  has 
in  blasphemia,  the  meaning  in  Provengal  is  usually  abstract. 
If  -ENHA  in  escopienha  represents  -EMIA,  the  meaning 
has  changed  somewhat.  The  suffix  appears  to  be  regu- 
larly added  to  verb-stems,  which  is  the  usual  course 
for  abstract  suffixes  to  follow.  The  only  model  for  the 
new  formations  to  follow  was  hlastemia,  in  which  no  stem 
could  have  been  clear. 

-ENH  is  found  in  several  words,  but  is  not  properly 
a  suffix  at  all.  Such  words,  for  example,  as  defenh, 
mantenh,  are  substantives  derived  from  verbs,  under  which 
heading  they  will  be  treated. 

>  Of  course  these  abstracts  from  -EMIA  can  have  nothing  to  do 
with  -ENGA,  the  feminine  form  of  the  words  in  -ENC,  treated  on 
p.  178. 


t  Found  also  in  estamenha,  sieve,  from  a  Lat.  staminia,  having 
nothing  to  do  with  the  ending  -EMIA,  and  in  the  somewhat  obscure  word 
espardenha,  shoe  of  feather-grass,  formed  on  spartum  according  to  Kor- 
ting  (No.  8,913),  who  does  not  say,  however,  what  the  -ENHA  represents. 


116  Word-Formation  in  Proven(,\\l 

The  last  suffix  of  the  group  -ANHA,  -ENHA,  -ONHA 
is  -ONHA,  from  -ONEA,  probably  the  neuter  plural 
of  the  adjective  ending  -ONEUS  used  substantively. 
The  only  example  of  the  suffix  in  a  Provengal  word  seems 
to  be  mensonga,  mensonja,  but  this  was  probably  not  a 
Provengal  formation.  Escalonha,  shallot,  has  the  ending 
-ONHA,  but  does  not  represent  the  suffix  -ONIA.  It 
probably  comes  from  the  proper  name  Ascalonia.  Mer- 
cimonia,  merchandise,  is  only  the  Latin  mercimonia, 
showing  the  suffix  -MONIUM,  which  appears  not  to 
have  been  used  as  a  Romance  suffix. 

-ANSA,    -ENSA 

There  are  but  two  forms  for  the  verbal  suffix  of  the 
next  group,  -ANSA  and  -ENSA,  instead  of  the  usual  three, 
beginning  with  a,  e,  and  i,  according  to  the  conjugation 
of  the  verb,  as  in  -AMEN,  -ADOR,  -ADURA,  etc.  The 
reason  for  this  reduction  in  the  number  of  forms  is  very 
simple,  however.  -ANSA  and  -ENSA  are  derived  from 
-ANTI A  and  -ENTIA,  which  are  equal  to  the  ending  of 
the  present  participle  (-ANTEM  or  -ENTEM)  plus  the 
suffix  -lA.  Thus  in  Latin  there  were  really  but  two  end- 
ings for  the  participle,  and  there  had  been  no  reduction  in 
forms  in  Provengal.  -ANSA  and  -ENSA  being,  therefore, 
formed  somewhat  differently  from  the  other  Provengal 
verbal  suffixes,  have,  naturally,  different  forms. 

As  for  meaning,  however,  this  group  differs  little  from 
that  of  any  other  verbal  suffix,  its  force  being  regularly 
abstract.  In  this  word  are  included  two  kinds  of  ideas: 
not  only  the  idea  of  the  action  expressed  in  the  verb  to 
which  the  suffix  is  added,  but  also  state  or  condition,  or 
even  a  thing  itself  resulting  from  some  action.  -AMEN 
has  both  of  these  meanings  also,  but  in  a  very  large 


Formation  of  Nouns  117 

proportion  of  the  words  ending  in  that  suffix  the  meaning 
is  that  of  action ,  whereas  in  the  case  of  -ANSA  the  result 
of  an  action  is  relatively  in  much  greater  use.^  Such 
words  as  acostumansa,  devinansa,  donansa,  estansa, 
falhansa,  finansa,  fizansa,  gravansa,  membransa,  mes- 
clansa,  orrejansa,  pensansa,  prestansa,  regazerdonansa, 
remembransa,  and  sonansa  show  this  kind  of  use,  some  of 
the  words  becoming  almost  concrete  in  force.  Some 
words,  as  asemblansa,  comportansa,  and  comunalhansa, 
seem  to  have  collective  force,  but  in  none  of  these  cases 
is  this  contributed  by  the  suffix.  In  the  first  two  words, 
we  have  -ANSA  with  its  meaning  of  the  thing  resulting 
from  the  action  described  by  the  verb,  and  the  collective 
force,  as  far  as  it  exists,  is  contained  in  the  verb.  Comu- 
nalhansa is  probably  also  formed  in  this  way  on  comu- 
nalar.  There  is  a  noun  comunalha,  and  if  added  to  this 
word,  we  should  have  an  example  of  the  use  of  -ANSA 
without  force — the  only  example  of  this  use  of  -ANSA 
— and  also  of  its  addition  to  a  noun.  Two  words  onlj' 
show  real  concrete  force— garansa,  madder  (a  plant),  and 
animansa,  animal.  Of  these,  the  second  shows  a  substi- 
tution of  -ANSA  for  -AL. 

One  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities,  indeed,  of  the  use 
of  -ANSA  is  its  substitution  for  other  suffixes,  although  in 
all  cases  except  animansa  the  displaced  suffix  was  -TAT. 
The  relations  of  the  two  must  have  been  very  close. .  Thus 
we  find  substitutions  of  -ANSA  for  -TAT  in  amistansa,^ 
enemistansa,'^  piatansa,   and  majoransa.     The  next  most 

1  There  is  about  an  equal  number  of  words  with  this  meaning  among 
both  suffixes;  but  -AMEN  contains  a  vastly  larger  number  of  pure 
abstracts. 

2  This  is  a  pair  of  words  with  opposite  meanings,  and  one  would  have 
suggested  the  other.  The  starting-point  for  these  formations  appears  to 
have  been  piatansa  (found  also  in  Fr.,  and  through  it,  Engl,  as  "pittance," 
in  which  the  meaning  has  become  changed  and  specialized). 


118  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

remarkable  use  is  that  of  being  joined  to  compound  words 
formed  of  two  short  distinct  words,  of  which  the  first 
was  generally  ben  or  mal,  as  henestansa,  hefazensa,  malan- 
ansa,  and  malesta7isa}  But  in  real  parasynthetic  forma- 
tions, or  words  whose  first  part  was  a  real  prefix,  it  is 
absent. 

-ANSA  and  -ENSA  seem  to  remain  true  to  their 
original  use  as  verbal  suffixes,  and  to  show  no  probable 
examples  of  formations  on  nouns  or  on  other  words. 
Sometimes  the  verb  is  not  found  in  Provengal,  as  in  bo- 
bansa  and  curiansa,  but  its  existence  is  always  probable 
in  cases  that  may  not  be  explained  either  by  a  substitu- 
tion of  one  suffix  for  another  or  by  a  loss  of  prefix,  as  in 
ebriansa.  Comunalhansa  has  already  been  treated.  Du- 
rensa  seems  to  be  formed  on  durir  and  not  on  dur.  The 
only  really  puzzling  word  is  certansa,  certainty,  which 
appears  to  be  formed  on  the  adjective  cert,  certain,  certar 
not  existing  with  this  sense.  It  seems  probable,  however, 
either  that  a  verb  certar  did  exist  or  that  we  have  here 
another  substitution  of  -ANSA  for  -TAT  found  in  cer- 
taneiat.  This  would  mean  the  disappearance  of  a  syllable, 
as  in  constrensa  for  constrenhensa. 

-ANSA  is  found  in  the  following  words -.^ 

acabansa,  end  acabar,  end,  complete 

acoindansa,  acquaintance  acoindar,  get  acquainted 

acordansa,  agreement  acordar,  agree 

acostumansa,  custom  acostuniar,  accustom 

adordenansa,     arrangement,     see 
azordenansa 

»  For  these  words,  see  the  hybrid  formations,  p.  579. 

2  As  an  illustration  of  the  similarity  in  use  of  the  two  abstract  suffixes 
-AMEN  and  -ANSA  it  may  be  interesting  to  point  out  the  verb-stems 
that  are  found  with  both  suffixes  and  the  few  cases  where  the  meaning 
differs:  acoind-,  acord-,  afiz-,  ajost-,  along-,  amas-,  amerm,-  amonest-, 
ampar-,  atrob-,  azorden-,  comens-,  compar-,  comport-,  confort-,  consol-, 
demon-,  desconord-,  desmembr-,  destempr-,  destri-,  devin-,  dezesper-,  don-. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


119 


aesmansa,  see  azesmansa 
afizansa,  agreement,  accord 
agradansa,  pleasure 
ajostansa,  relation,  company 
ajudansa,  aid 
alegransa,  joy 
aliansa,  alliance,  union 
alienansa,  alienation 
alongansa,  delay,  lengthening 
amansa,  love 

amasansa,  piling  up,  amassing 
amblansa,  amble,  ambling  pace 
amermansa,  dying  away 
amezuransa,  moderation 
amistansa,^  friendship 
amonestansa,  warning 
amparansa,  protection 
animansa,^  animal 
apagansa,  satisfaction 
asemblansa,  assembly 
atrobansa,  discovery 
autrejansa,  concession 
azesmansa,  estimation 
azordenansa,  arrangement 


afizar,  assure 
agradar,  please 
ajostar,  arrange 
ajudar,  aid 
alegrar,  rejoice 
aliar,  ally 
alienar,  alienate 
alongar,  lengthen 
amar,  love 
amasar,  amass 
amblar,  amble 
amermar,  diminish 
amezurar,  measure 

amonestar,  warn 
amparar,  protect 
animar,  animate 
apagar,  appease 
asemblar,  assemble 
atrobar,  find 
autrejar,  grant 
azesmar,  estimate 
azordenar,  arrange 


dopt-,  egal-,  endenh-,  engan-,  enlumen-,  ensenh-,  espavent-,  esper-,  esquiv-, 
est-,  fin-,  gazanh-,  govern-,  grav-,  greuj-,  guiz-,  li-,  liur-,  lonh-,  melhor-, 
inembT-,  mescl-,  mont-,  moslr-,  oblid-,  our-,  orden-,  pejor-,  perdon-,  prezic-, 
razon-,  remembr-,  son-,  tarz-,  trabuc-,  uz-,  van-,  venj-. 

There  are  few  differences  to  be  seen  in  any  of  the  pairs.     The  most 
noteworthy  are: 

and  comportansa,  yield,  produce 

and  egalansa,  equality 

and  esquivansa,  aversion 

and  est  ansa,  fortune 

and  (re)menibransa,  memory 

and  mesclansa,  quarrel,  brawl 

and  sonansa,  assonance 

-ANSA  for  -TAT. 


comportamen,  conduct 
egalamen,  equal  taxation 
esquivamen,  obstacle 
estatnen,  state;  stopping-place 
(re)membramen,  remembrance 
mesclamen,  mixture 
sonamen,  sounding 

1  This  word  seems  to    show  a  substitution  of 
Cf.  also  its  opposite  enemistansa,  and  piatansa. 

•  This  is  a  very  peculiar  meaning  for  -ANSA  to  have,  but  the  example 
leaves  no  doubt  about  it.  There  is  evddently  a  substitution  of  -ANSA 
for  -AL,  but  it  is  difficult  to  account  for.  The  plural  of  animal — animalia — 
became  used  as  a  singular,  and  -ANSA  maj-  have  been  substituted  for 
-ALHA,  which  resembles  it  somewhat. 


120 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


halhansa,  gift 
baptizansn,  baptism 
he.nestansa,'^  excellence,  perfection 
bobansa,^  pomp,  display 
bonauransa,'^  happiness 
caste jansa,  warning 
certansa,^  certainty 
cobransa,  recovery  of  health 
coindansa,*  conduct 
comensansa,  beginning 
comjiaransa,  comparison 
comporlansa,  yield,  proceeds 
comunalhansa,  community 
concordansa,  contract,  agreement 
confortansa,  consolation 
consolansa,  consolation 
consonansa,  rhyme 
costumansa,  custom 
cujansa,  belief,  opinion 
curiansa,^  carefulness 
deliuransa,  freeing,  deliverance 
delonhansa,  postponement,  delay 
demandansa,  request 
demoransa,  delay 
desconordansa,  discouragement 
desmembransa,  forgetting 
desmezuransa,  impropriety 
dessebransa,  departure 
dessemblansa,  dissemblance 
destempransa,  disorder 
destriansa,  choosing 


balhar,  deliver 
baptizar,  baptize 


castejar,  warn,  correct 

cobrar,  recover 

comensar,  begin 
comparar,  compare 
comportar,  bear 
comunal{h)ar,  share 
concordar,  agree 
conforlar,  comfort 
consolar,  console 
consonar,  harmonize,  rhyme 
costumar,  be  accustomed 
cujnr,  believe 

deliurar,  deliver 
delonhar,  remove 
demandar,  request 
demorar,  stay,  delay 
desconordar,  discourage 
desmembrar,  forget 
dezmezurar,  go  to  excess 
dessebrar,  separate 
dessemblar,  conceal 
destemprar,  disorder,  derange 
destriar.  distinguish 


» Two  words  plus  suffix.     See  hybrids,  p.  579. 

2  No  verb.  Korting,  No.  1,496,  derives  bobansa  from  bomba,  pomp. 
Cf.  O.Fr.  bober  and  bobance.     Probably  the  Prov.  word  is  a  borrowing. 

3  Cevtansa,  if  it  does  not  go  back  to  a  Lat.  *certantia,  may  have 
been  formed  on  the  adjective  cert,  certain.     See,  however,  p.  118  above. 

« The  verb  coindar  is  struck  out  by  Levy.  Coindansa  may  have 
been  formed  on  the  adjective  coinde,  but  is  more  probably  only 
acoindansa,  with  loss  of  prefix  due  to  confusion  with  the  vowel  of  the 
article. 

s  No  verb  curiar  is  found  in  Prov.  Cf.,  however,  Sp.  curiar,  prob- 
ably of  the  same  origin  as  curar.     See  Korting,  No.  2,702. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


121 


devinansa,^  calumny,  noise,  uproar 

dezagradansa,  displeasure 

dezamparansa,  abandonment 

dezegansa,'^  disturbance,  disorder 

dezesperansa,  despair 

deziransa,  desire 

dezonransa,  dishonor 

donansa,  gift 

doptansa,  danger 

ebriansa,^  drtmkenness,  orgy 

egalansa,  equality 

egansa,  equalization,  recompense 

emendansa,  amends,  compensa- 
tion 

endenhansa,  indignation 

enemistansa,'^  enmity 

engansa,     deception     (for 
nansa?) 

enlumenansa,  brilliancy 

ensenhansa,  teaching 

envejansa,  striving,  zeal 

escuzansa,  excuse 

esmansa,  assessment,  valuation 

espaventansa,  fear 

esperansa,  hope 

esquivansa,  aversion 

esquivadansa,^  lie,  falsehood 

estansa,  fortune 

estimansa,  estimation 

falhansa,  fault,  mistake 

fermansa,  security,  assurance 

finansa,   arrangement;   payment; 
money 


devinar,  guess,  divine 
dezagradar,  displease 
dezamparar,  abandon 

dezesperar,  despair 
dezirar,  desire 
dezonrar,  dishonor 
donar,  give 
doptar,  doubt,  fear 

egalar,  equal 
egar,  equalize 
emendar,  amend 

endenhar,  be  angry 


enga-     enganar,  deceive 


enlumenar,  illvuninate 
ensenhar,  teach 
envejar,  envy 
escuzar,  excuse 
esmar,  estimate 
espaventar,  fear 
esperar,  hope 
esquivar,  avoid,  shun 

estar,  stand,  delay;  persist 
estimar,  estimate 
falhar,  fail 
fermar,  strengthen 
finar,   end;    settle  or   close    an 
account 


'  The  meaning  of  "calumny"  is  seen  also  in  the  other  derivatives 
of  devinar — devinalha,  and  devijiamen. 

^  Dezegansa  =1)^8-+ egansa.      See,    therefore,    the    nominal    prefix 
DES-  on  p.  469. 

3  Ebriar  is   not   found.     Ebriansa  is  probably  enebriansa  with    loss 
of  prefix. 

*  Enemistansa  shows  substitution  of  -ANSA  for  -TAT.     See  amis- 
iansa. 

5  Given  in  Levy  with  an  interrogation  point.      The  word  with  the 
ad  interpolated  is  obscure.     See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 


122 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


fizansa,  oath,  security,  bail 

galiansa,  deception 

garansa,  madder  (a  kind  of  plant) 

gardansa,  rule,  observation 

gazanhansa,  gain,  acquisition 

gloriejansa,  boasting 

glorifiansa,  glorification 

governansa,  government,  rule 

gravansa,  difficulty 

greujansa,  sternness,  severity 

guizansa,  act  of  guiding 

illuminansa,  splendor,  brilliancy, 
also  given  under  en- 

importansa,  importance 

jactansa,  boasting 

lauransa,  plowing  of  field 

liansa,  alliance 

liuransa,  delivery;  also  doctrines 
or  traditions 

longansa,  delay 

lonhansa,    postponement,    defer- 
ment 

majoransa,  majority^ 

malanansa,  misfortune- 

malestansa,  discomfort^ 

manifestansa,  manifestation 

maridansa,  marriage 

melhoransa,  improvement 

membransa,  memory 

mendigansa,  beggary 

meravelhansa,  marveling 

mercenejansa,  pity 

mermansa,  diminution 

mesclansa,  dispute 

moderansa,  moderation 

molheransa,  marriage 

montansa,  elevation 

1  Majoransa  seems  to    show 
-TAT.     See  amistansa. 

2  Malanansa  and  malestansaappesiTtohcmal  +  anar+ansa  and  7nal  + 
estar  +a7isa.  Eslansa  exists  alone  but  with  a  different  kind  of  meaning; 
see  hybrid  formations,  p.  579.  In  words  of  this  kind,  ben  and  mal  are 
treated  as  words  rather  than  as  mere  prefixes. 


fizar,  trust 
galiar,  deceive 

gardar,  keep 

gazanhar,  gain 

gloriejar  (se),  glorify  (oneself) 

glorifiar,  glorify 

governar,  govern 

gravar,  be  burdensome,  injure 

greujar,  be  hard  on 

guizar,  guide 


importar,  matter 
jactar,  boast 
laurar,  plow 
liar,  bind 
liurar,  deliver 

longar,  remove 
lonhar,  remove 


manifestar,  manifest 
maridar,  marry     • 
melhorar,  improve 
membrar,  remember 
mendigar,  beg 
meravelhar,  marvel 
mercenejar,  have  pity  for 
mermar,  diminish 
mesclar,  mix,  confuse 
moderar,  moderate 
molherar,  marry 
montar,  mount 
another  substitution   of 


ANSA    for 


Formation  of  Nouns 


123 


moslransa,  demonstration 

muzansa,  folly,  thoughtlessness 

nafransa,  wound,  damage 

noviansa,  reputation 

nomenativansa,  rumor,  report 

oblidansa,  forgetfulness 

obransa,  work 

ondansa,^  profit,  advantage  (?) 

onransa,  honor 

ordenansa,  command,  arrange- 
ment 

orrejansa,  impurity,  soiling 

parcenejansa,  participation 

pejoransa,  dechne 

pensansa,  thought,  care 

perdonansa,  pardoning;  indul- 
gence 

perlongansa,  prolongation 

perparansa,  offer,  presentation 

piatansa,^  pity,  consideration ; 
alms 

plendansa,^  fulness 

poderansa,-  power 

pojansa,  ascendancy 

portansa,  bearing 

prestansa,  loan 

prezansa,  appreciation,  esteem 

prezentansa,  presentation 

prezicansa,  preaching 

procreansa,  procreation 

publiansa,  pubUcation 

pujansa,  see  pojansa 

quitansa,  discharge,  quittance 

razonansa,  remonstrance,  observa- 
tion 

recordansa,  commemoration 

regazerdonansa,  recompense 

remembransa,  memory 


mostrar,  show 

muzar,  wait  in  vain,  lose  time 

nafrar,  wound 

noniar,  name 

nomenativar,  name 

oblidar,  forget 

obrar,  work 

onrar,  honor 
ordenar,  order 

orrejar,  soil 
parcenejar,  participate 
pejorar,  decline,  deteriorate 
pensar,  think 
perdonar,  pardon 

perlongar,  prolong 
perparar,  offer,  present 


pojar,  rise 
portar,  bear 
prestar,  lend 
prezar,  prize 
prezentar,  present 
prezicar,  preach 
procrear,  procreate 
publiar,  publish 

guitar,  leave 
razonar,  reason 

recordar,  record 
regazerdonar,  recompense 
remembrar,  remember 


1  Ondansa  is  probably  aondansa  with  the  loss  of  the  prefix  a-. 

2  Piatansa  probably  shows  a  substitution  of  -ANSA  for  -TAT ; 
see  amisiansa,  above.  In  the  same  way,  plendansa  appears  to  show  a 
substitution  for  -TAT  in  plendat.  Poderar  as  a  simple  verb  is  not  found, 
though  it  exists  in  apoderar. 


124 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


renomansa,^  renown 

seguransa,  security,  assurance 

semblansa,  resemblance 

sobre{a)oiidansa,  superabundance 

sonansa,  assonance,  imperfect 
rhyme 

tarzansa,  delay 

tormentansa,  torment,  suffering 

trabucansa,  overturning,  upset- 
ting 

triansa,  choice,  distinction 

uzansa,  custom,  usage 

vanansa,  boasting 

venjansa,  vengeance 

versemhlansa,-  probability 

vojansa,^  emptying 


renomuar,  re-name 
segurar,  assure 
semblar,  seem 
sobrondar,  superabound 
sonar,  sound 

iarzar,  delay 
tormentar,  torment 
irabucar,  upset 

triar,  choose 
uzar,  use 
vanar,  boast 
venjar,  avenge 

vojar,  empty 


Under  -ENSA,  the  following  words  are  found : 


apartenensa,  appurtenance 
atendensa,  waiting,  delay 
avinensa,^  attraction,  charm 
befazensa,^  charity 
cabensa,  room,  space 
calensa,  care 
cazensa,  fall 

complanhensa,  complaint 
concrezensa,  concession,  admission 

constrensa,*  constraint  (legal  term) 
convinensa,  see  cov-^ 


aparlener,  belong 
atendre,  wait 
avenir,  please 

caber,  be  contained  in 
caler,  care 
cazer,  fall 

complanher,  complain 
from    concrezer,     for 
grant,  concede 


concreire, 


1  Renomansa  is  surely  formed  on  the  verb  rather  thau  the  noun, 
although  the  n  of  renomnar  has  disappeared.  Cf.  renomada  and  the 
Fr.  renommee.     The  loss  of  the  n  may  be  due  to  Fr.  influence. 

^Ver  semblansa  and  be/azensa  =t'er+sem6Zar+-ENSA  and  he  + 
/a2er +-ENSA.     See  hybrid  formations,  p.  579. 

'  For  the  vowel  in  the  stem  of  avinensa  and  covinensa,  see  Grand- 
gent,  art.  46,  sec.  1. 

*  A  shortened  form  of  costrenhcnsa  from  coslrenher  ? 


t  Also  of  Lat.  origin,  aondansa,  abundance <a6Mn</an/ia;  consiransa, 
c&re< consider antia;  erransa,  error< c/ronh'a,  listed  in  Cooper,  33;  and 
sobransa,  sovereignty <.superantia. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


125 


corrensa,  course,  flow 

covinensa,^  stipulation 

cozensa,  cooking 

crezensa,  belief 

desconoisensa,  unfriendliness  (L), 
ingratitude  (R) 

descrezensa,  unbelief 

desmanienensa,  abandonment 

dezobediensa,-  disobedience 

dolensa,  grief,  chagrin 

durensa,  hardness 

enseguensa,  following 

entendensa,  thought,  opinion 

escazensa,  heritage,  inheritance 

esfluensa,^  outflow 

espavensa,*  fear 

estendensa,  extension,  expansion 

estenensa,  reserve,  abstinence 

falhensa,  lack,  loss 

fazensa,  malcing;  issuance,  publi- 
cation 

florensa,^  a  coin 

folensa,  folly 

garensa,  guaranty 

joisensa,^  usufruct,  possession 

lezensa,  allowance,  permission 

loctenensa,"  viceroyship 


correr,  run,  flow 
covenir,  agree 
cozer,  cook 
crezer,  beUeve 
desconoiser,  not  to  know 

descrezer,  disbelieve 
desmantener,  abandon 
dezobezir,  disobey 
doler,  grieve 
durir,  become  hard 
enseguir,  follow 
entendre,  understand 
escazer,  fall  due 


estendre,  extend 

estener,  hold  back 

falhir,  fail 

infinitive /azer,  instead  of  faire 

florir,  flourish 

folir,  become  foolish,  crazy 

garir,  preserve 


lezer,  permit 


1  For  the  vowel  in  the  stem  of  avinensa  and  covinensa,  see  Grand- 
gent,  art.  46,  sec.  1. 

-  The  simple  word  obediensa  is  of  Lat.  origin. 

3  Formed  by  analogy  with  enfluensa  with  no  verb  intervening. 

^  There  is  no  such  verb  as  espaver  in  Prov.,  but  expavere  existed  in 
Lat.  and  forms  of  it  still  exist  in  some  dialects  (see  Korting,  No.  3,440). 
One  n:iay  have  existed  also  in  Prov.  The  simple  form  pavensa  maj-  have 
aided  in  the  formation  of  espavensa. 

'"  The  word  comes  more  directly,  of  course,  from  the  proper  noun, 
Florence. 

6  The  only  verb  is  jauzir.  Cf .,  however,  the  O.Fr.  joir,  joissant'ment, 
joissable,  and  the  modern  jouissance.  The  word  appears  to  be  a  bor- 
rowing from  Fr.,  but  in  such  case  we  should  expect  -ANSA  instead  of 
-ENSA. 

'  See  also  hybrids,  p.  579. 


126 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


luzir,  shine 
mantener,  maintain 


mescazer,  injure 
mesconoiser,  not  to  know 


luzensa,  splendor 

manienensa,^  maintenance 

viensvalensa,^  inferior    value,    de- 
preciation 

mescazensa,  misfortune 

mesconoisensa,  ignorance,  ingrati- 
tude 

noncalensa,^  nonchalance 

padoensa,  communal  forest  (?),  right 
of  pasturing;  see  Du  Gauge's 
paduentiae,  under  paduire 

paisensa,  right  of  pasturing 

partensa,  division 

parvensa,^  appearance;  conduct 

percebensa,  inspiration,  suggestion 

pervenensa,  revenue,  perquisites 

pervezensa,  perspicacity 

plazensa,  pleasure,  amiabihty 

plevensa,  promise,  guaranty 

preconoisensa,^  foreknowledge 

'protnetensa,  promise 

reconoisensa,  recognition 

rendensa,  care,  attention  ■ 

requerensa,  request,  demand 

resplandensa,  resplendence 

sahensa,  learning 

tazensa,  silence 

temensa,  fear 

ienensa,  possession,  enjoyment 

vezensa,  sight 

viltenensa,^  t  scorn 

1  See  also  hybrids,  p.  579.     Noncaler,  on  which  noncalensa  is  formed, 
is  used  as  a  noun. 

2  The  V  in  parven  is  inserted,  according  to  Diez,  655,  to  distinguish 
it  from  paren,  parent.     Hence  also  parvensa. 

'  Preconoisensa  =  PRE-  -\-conoisensa.     See  nominal  prefixes,  p.  476. 


noncaler 


paiser,  pasture 
partir,  divide 
parer,  appear 
percebre,  perceive 
pervenir,  attain,  belong 
pervezer,  perceive 
plazer,  please 
plevir,  pledge 

prometre,  promise 
reconoiser,  recognize 
retidre,  render,  give  back 
requerir,  require,  demand 
resplandre,  shine,  glitter 
saber,  know 
tazer,  be  silent 
temer,  fear 
tener,  hold 
vezer,  see 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  are  aparensa  and  creisensa  (see  Cooper,  34),  delin- 
quensa,  dependensa,  and  excelensa  (see  Olcott,  75),  and  indigensa,  iraisensa 
(see  Cooper,  34),  jovensa,  pavensa,  preeminensa,  semensa  (Cooper,  36), 
sofrensa  (Ronsch,  50;  Cooper,  35),  and  sostenensa  (Ronsch,  50).  Jovensa, 
youth,  is  probably  from  *juventia  ioTJuventa  (cf.  O.Fr.  jouvence).  Juventia 
may  have  been  formed  on  the  model  of  adolescentia. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


127 


-AR 

The  Provengal  suffix  -AR  seems  generally  to  have 
developed  out  of  the  Latm  adjective  suffix  -ARIS,  found 
already  in  Latin  used  substantively,  as  in  familiaris,  an 
intimate  friend,  which  became  the  Provengal  familhar, 
friend,  companion.  The  adjective  used  substantively 
seems  sometimes  to  have  taken  the  meaning  of  the  noun 
with  which  it  was  originally  used,  and  to  have  lost  all 
trace  of  its  proper  meaning.  This  is  the  case  in  anglar, 
bit  of  stone,  from  the  phrase  peira  anglar;  and  in  other 
cases,  the  substantive  use  of  the  adjective  shows  no 
change  in  meaning  to  have  been  contracted  by  the  noun 
on  which  the  adjective  was  originally  formed,  as  in  leon 
and  leonar,  lion,  polga  and  polgar,  thumb.  The  list  in 
which  -AR  represents  the  Latin  adjective  suffix  -ARIS 
follows : 


anglar,  piece  of  rock 

falgar,  place  grown  with  ferns 

falhar,  wood  for  hoops :  Is  rather 
difficult  to  explain.  There  is  a 
word  falha,  a  fault,  and  also 
falha,  a  board-game,  hut  falhar 
does  not  appear  to  be  formed 
on  either  of  them.  The  cor- 
responding French  word  is 
feuillard,  derived  from  feuille.- 
The  Provencal  word  seems 
also  to  be  connected  with  the 
word  for  leaf — folk. 

fosar,  family  tomb 

lagremar,  lachrymal  gland 

leonar,  lion 

merendar,  lunch 


anglar,  angular 

There  is  no  word  jalga  in  Pro- 
vengal  on  which  to  form  such 
a  word  as  falgar,  although 
there  is  a  word  falguiera,  in 
which  the  ending  represents 
the  suffix  -ARIUM.i  Falgar 
looks  like  another  form  of  the 
same  word. 


fosa,  ditch 
lagrema,  tear 
leon,  lion 
merenda,  lunch 


1  See  Korting,  No.  3,745,  filicaria  (filix,  fern,  plus  -ARIA). 

2  See  Die.  Gen.  under  feuillard. 


128  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

milhar,  field  of  millet  milh,  millet 

molinar,    place    fit    for    building     molin,  mill 

mills,  or  one  having  mills 
mosclar,  fishhook  moscla  (more  commonly  7ioscla), 

clasp 
pai/tor,  sweepings,  straw-supply^  t      palha,  straw 

Another  source  from  which  -AR  is  derived  is  the 
suffix  -ARE,  the  neuter  form  of  -ARIS,  already  used 
substantively  in  Latin,  as  in  altare.  It  seems  to  be  used 
to  denote  objects  of  dress. 

espaular,  shoulder-piece  espaula,  shoulder 

groiar,tt  neckpiece  gola,  throat 

-AR  is  found  also  in  a  few  words  in  which  it  represents 
simply  the  infinitive  ending  of  the  verb  of  the  first  con- 
jugation.    These  nouns  are  nothing  but  these  infinitives 
used  substantively.-    Such  words  are: 
cantar,  hymn  felenar,  anger  gostar,  lunch 

1  The  suflBx  even  seems  to  have  collective  force  here,  but  this  meaning 
also  may  be  due  to  the  noun  with  which  the  word  was  used. 
-  See  also  nouns  from  verbs,  p.  548. 


t  Other  words  of  Lat.  origin  are  cujolar,  hut ;  wooded  plains,  an  obscure 
word  which  Thomas  derives  from  cubiolaris  (Nouv.  Ess.,  228);  familhar, 
friend,  seTvantK familiaris;  joglar,  " jongleur" <jocularis;  lindar,  thresh- 
\io\d<,limitaris;  melar,  large  vessel  for  oiKmellarium;  pegar,  pitcher< 
picarium;  pedilhar,  pole  (also  pezelhar,  hinge,  pivot,  pole) <*pedicularis; 
pobolar,  lower  classes,  peopleK  popular  is;  and  polgar,  thumb  <.pollicaris. 
Melar  is  peculiar  in  its  development  of  meaning.  Mellarius  meant  "per- 
taining to  honey"  in  Class.  Lat.,  and  the  neuter  mellarium  meant  "bee- 
hive." In  Du  Cange  the  latter  is  found  with  the  meaning  of  vessel  in 
which  honey  is  kept  or  wine  is  placed.  Then,  in  Prov.,  instead  of  wine, 
the  mellarium  seems  to  have  been  used  for  oil.  Pedilhar  and  pezelhar  are 
also  interesting.  Both  probably  come  from  a  Lat.  pedicularis,  which 
could  mean  "pertaining  to  a  small  foot  or  to  a  louse"  (pediculus  meaning 
both  small  foot  and  louse,  and  peolh  from  peduculiis  having  the  latter 
meaning  in  Prov.).  Pedilhar  and  pezelhar  seem  to  come  from  pedicularis 
with  the  former  meaning,  though  the  precise  development  of  meaning  is 
not  clear. 

ft  Colar,  collar  (Meyer-Liibke,  II,  5.50),  laminar  (Korting,  No.  5,729), 
and  soilar,  shoe,  are  Lat. 


Formation  of  Nouns  129 

The  Provencal  -AR  apparently  comes  also  from 
-ARIUS,  and  is  found  in  some  learned  formations  instead 
of  the  more  usual  ending  -lER.     Thus, 

carlolar,^  carter 
cavalar,  rider 

And  representing  -ARIUM,  -AR  is  found  in : 

castelar,-  castle,  stronghold 
epistolar,  collection  of  letters 

1  See  words  in  -ARI  also,  note  2  below. 

'  There  is  also  a  word  caslar,  which  is  at  first  puzzling,  as  Raj-nouard 
(II,  353)  gives  examples  showing  the  meaning  to  be  different  from  that 
of  castel.  It  meant  apparently  a  stronghold  belonging  to  a  castle,  and 
is  an  example  of  an  adjective  used  substantively.  It  is  a  phonetic  devel- 
opment of  castellaris  uninfluenced  by  the  simple  word  castellum  {Nouv. 
Ess.,  229  for  caylar  beside  castelar).     See  also  caslan,  beside  castelan. 

In  learned  words,  however,  a  more  usual  termination  than  -AR  for 
words  from  -ARIUS  and  -ARIUM  was  -ARI.  These  words  are  all  Lat. 
formations:  armari,  closet;  bestiari,  bestiary;  breviari,  breviary;  cartolari, 
carter;  compromisari,  arbitrator;  conresan,  head  cook;  contrari,  enemy, 
injury;  datari,  necrology  (that  is,  date-book  in  which  dates  of  deaths 
are  noted.  See  Du  Cange,  datarium);  deimari,  tithing;  deima,  tithe 
(desma,  tenth);  desvari,  folly,  extravagance;  doari,  dowry  (also  written 
doaire) ;  donatari,  recipient  of  gift;  erbolari,  herbal,  also  herbalist,  botanist; 
escaperlari,  scapulary;  falsari,  falsifier;  imnari,  hymnal;  incendiari, 
incendiary;  leudari,  district  in  which  " leuda "  is  raised;  leuda,  tax; 
librari,  bookshelf  or  library;  mandatari,  book  in  which  the  order  of 
divine  offices  is  laid  down ;  ordenari,  usual  following  of  a  lord ;  ordinary 
judge;  pesari,  pessary;  procesionari,  processional;  propriari,  owner,  pos- 
sessor; questionari,  executioner;  vestiari,  vestiary. 

And  from-ERIUM:  baptisteri,  baptistry;  ciyniteri,  cemetery;  cristeri, 
clyster. 

And  from  -ORIUM:  escriptori,  scriptorium  (the  popular  develop- 
ments of  -ARIUM  [-ERIUM]  and  -ORIUM  with  the  Prov.  words  formed 
by  means  of  them  will  be  found  under  the  headings  -lER  and  -OIRA) ; 
panatori,  theft;  posesori,  possession;  real  estate;  predicatori,  pulpit; 
preparatori,  preparation ;  procuratori,  power  of  attorney. 


130  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

-ARIA 

The  suffix  -ARIA  was  formed  by  attaching  the  suffix 
-lA  (which  will  be  treated  later^  to  words  already  ending 
in  -ARIU.^  -I A  was  added  to  nouns  and  to  adjectives 
to  form  abstracts  generally:  -ARIA  is  added  to  the  same 
parts  of  speech,  but  especially  to  nouns,  to  designate  the 
place  in  which  the  object  denoted  by  the  simple  noun  could 
be  found  in  abundance,  or  was  sold.  This  is  its  most 
important  function,  but  by  no  means  its  only  one;  for  it 
seems  to  denote  certain  offices  or  trades  (camararia, 
celararia,  polaria,  etc.),  and  also  (as  in  molinaria)  a  cer- 
tain feudal  right.  In  estahlaria,  fermansaria,  etc.,  there 
is  no  change  in  meaning  from  that  of  the  simple  noun,  and 
a  number  of  words  have  abstract  force.  A  difficulty 
in  dealing  with  this  suffix  occurs  in  such  words  as  parlaria, 
where  the  suffix  appears  to  be  joined  to  verbs  to  form 
abstract  nouns,  which  was  one  of  the  functions  of  -lA. 
As  it  seems  hardly  likely  that  -lA,  which  formed  abstracts 
on  verb-stems  in  such  words  as  partia,  should  be  joined 
also  to  the  full  form  of  the  infinitive,^  words  like  parlaria 
will  be  treated  as  being  formed  by  adding  -ARIA  to  verb- 
stems.  The  abstracts  with  the  ending  -ARIA  appear  to 
be  formed  in  this  way.^ 

In  the  first  hst  will  be  given  the  words  in  which  -ARIA 
is  added  to  nouns;  in  the  second,  the  ones  in  which 
the  addition  may  have  been  to  verb  or  noun;  then  the 

t  Pp.  201-6. 

2  The  perfectly  phonetic  development  of  the  combination  of  the  two 
suflSxes  would  be  -AIRIA,  which  is  also  found. 

'  No  words  are  ever  formed  on  the  full  form  of  the  infinitive,  but 
always  on  the  stem.  The  "ar"  of  parlaria  is  clearly  a  part  of  the  com- 
pound suffix  -ARIA. 

*  This  is  certainly  the  case.  -ARIA  is  thought  of  as  a  single  suffix, 
and  not  as  originally  a  compound  in  which  the  suffix  -lA  was  added  only 
to  words  in  -ARIUS.     See  Essais,  183-84. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


131 


formations  on  verbs;  and  then  the  adjective  ones,  after 
which  some  words  ending  in  -AIRIA  will  be  treated. 
-ARIA  added  to  nouns: 


almonaria,  office  of  almoner 
aludaria,  tannery 
ambacharia,  embassy 


almona,  alms 
alida,  a  kind  of  skin 
(ambach<ambactus,  not  found, 

though  there  are  still  other 

derived  words) 
barba,  beard 
bibla,  bible 
blat,  wheat 


barbaric,  barber-shop 

biblaria,  Ubrary 

bladaria,  corn-market 

boaria,  also  boria,  ox-stall;    also 

metairie,    that     is,     "a    small 

farm  whose  produce  pays  the 

rent."      The     first      meaning 

seems  closer  to  the  simple  noun 

bou,  ox;  but  the  other  meaning 

also  could  be  derived  from  it 
cabanaria,  property 
cabraria,  herd  of  goats 
camararia,  office  of  chamberlain 
cavcdaria,  cavalry;    also  knightly 

deed 
celararia,^  office  of  cellarer 
coirataria,^  tannery 

correjaria,  strapshop 

draparia,  dry-goods 

drogaria,  drugstore 

drudaria,  gallantry 

egaria,  troop  of  horses 

erbaria,  herb-market 

erbolaria,^  vegetable-market 

escudaria,''-  squirehood,  i.e.,  novi- 
tiate of  knight  <  esc  wdter,  squire, 
knight 

I  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  383  and  395.  As  for  erbolaria,  erbol  is  not 
found,  but  herbolerius,  guardian  of  the  herbs,  and  herbolastra,  pastry,  are 
in  Du  Cange.     *Erbola,  from  the  Lat.  herbula,  must  have  once  existed. 

'  Clearly  the  word  on  which  escudaria  is  formed  is  escudier,  knight, 
and  not  escut,  shield,  yet  we  have  -ARIA  and  not  -AIRIA,  though  -AIR 
is  regularlv  found  for  -ARIUS  plus  other  suffixes,  as  seen  in  -AIRADA, 
-AIRAL,  -AIRON,  etc. 


cabana,  cabin 
cobra,  goat 
cambra,  room 
caval,  horse 

celar,  cellar  from  cela,  cellar 
(coirat  is  not  to  be  found,  though 

there  is  coirier,  etc.) 
correja,  strap 
drap,  cloth 
droga,  drug 
drut,  lover 
ega,  mare 
erba,  herb 


132 


Word-Formation  in  Provenc^al 


especiaria,  spice-shop 

establaria,  stable 

fabraria,  smithy 

facharia,  leasehold  estate 

fatonaria,  folly  (fatonia,  fatonier, 
also  found) 

fermansaria,^  security,  bail 

ferrataria,^  ironwork 

fizansaria,^  security,  bail 

fogaria,  hearth,  chimney 

formatjana,^  cheese  business 

Jornaljaria}  Levy  gives  the  word 
\\'ithout  meaning.  It  appears 
from  his  example  to  mean  some- 
thing like  baking-rights,  from 
Jornatje,  from  forn,  oven 

fornaria,  place  where  ovens  are 

forraria,  office  of  quartermaster 

frucharia,  fruit -market 

gaferaria,-  hospital  for  lepers 

galaria,^  gallery 

granataria,*  granary 

jvdiciaria,  judicial  service 

lanasaria*  wool-factory 

loctenenmria,^  deputyship 

logadaria*  letting,  lease 

mangonaria,  hardware 

maomaria,  mosque 

marrelaria,  church wardenship 

mercadaria,  merchandise;  busi- 
ness 

mercaria,  merchandise 

mesatjaria,*  mission 

mezelaria,  hospital  for  lepers;  lep- 
rosy 


especia,  spice 
estable,  stable 
fabrc,  smith 
facha,  property 
{*faton  from  fat,  fool) 

Jermansa,  security,  bail 
ferrat,  iron  pail 
fizansa,  security,  bail 
foe,  fire 
formatje,  cheese 


forn,  oven 

for  Her,  quartermaster,  cf .  forma- 
tion of  escudaria  above 
frueh,  fruit 
gafel,  leper 

{*granat)  froni  gran,  grain 
jicdici,  judgment 
l*lanas)  from  lana,  wool 
loctenensa,  deputyship 
logada,  rent 
mangon,  a  copper  coin 
maom,  Mahomet  ( ?) 
marrelier,  churchwarden 
mercat,  market 

mertz  (mers),  merchandise 
mesatge,  message 
mezel,  leper 


*  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  383-84. 

*  See  Du  Cange,  gafaria. 

3  Probably  not  a  Prov.  formation.     According  to  Korting  the  origin 
of  the  word  is  a  Lat.  *calaria.     According  to  Diez,  it  is  the  Gr.  7a\^. 

*  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  395,  401,  and  393,  n.  f 
5  See  hybrid  formations,  p.  579. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


133 


milharia,  millet-mai'ket  (?) 

orjaria,^  grain  business;  grain- 
market 

ostalaria,  hotel 

pairolaria,  trade  of  tinker  or 
boiler-maker 

panataria,^  bakery 

parcenaria,^  common  property 

pastisaria,  pastry 

peiraria,  stone  pile 

peisonaria,  fish  business 

pelharia,  furriery 

penchuraria,  painting 

perlaria,  pearls 

personaria,  deputyship 

pilhardaria,  pillage 

pintaria,  making  of  "pintas" 

podestaria,  office  of  "podestat" 

polaria,  poultry  business 

porcaria,  pigsty 

portaria,  office  of  gatekeeper 

preveiraria,  priesthood 

putaria,  prostitution 

ribaudaria,  ribaldry 

romaria,  pilgrimage 

sabataria,  shoeshop 

sorrolharia,^  sorcery 

ufanaria,\  self-sufficiency 


milh,  millet 
orgier,  grain-dealer 

ostal,  hotel 
pairol,  kettle 

panel,  small  piece 

parcenier,  sharer 

pastis,  pie,  pastry 

peira,  stone 

peison,  fish 

pelh,  skin,  pelt 

penchura,  painting 

perla,  pearl 

persona,  person  (of  consequence) 

pilhart,  trooper,  servant 

pinta,  vessel  for  wine 

podesta{t),  powerful  lord 

pol,  chicken 

pore,  pig 

porta,  gate 

preveiri,  priest 

puta,  prostitute 

ribaut,  ribald 

Roma,  Rome 

sabata,  shoe 

ufana,  arrogance 


The  following  list  contains  words  whose  formation  is 
not  quite  so  clear  as  those  in  the  preceding  list,  since, 

1  No  simple  word  found.  Forraria,  marrelaria,  orjaria,  and  parce- 
naria  seem  to  be  formed  on  the  corresponding  words  ending  in  -lER. 
See  escudaria,  above.  A  simple  word  *orge  may  have  existed.  Cf.  the 
Fr.  orge. 

2  See  double  suffixes,  p.  395. 

3  There  is  no  word  on  which  sorrolharia  could  be  directly  based.  It 
looks  like  a  mistake  for  sortilharia,  connected  with  sortilhier,  sorcerer. 


t  An  obscure  word  lioth  in  form  and  meaning  is  eisintaria.  Folataria 
is  also  obscure,  but  may  not  exist  at  all,  or  may  be  incorrect  for  foletaria. 
Another  word  beside  which  no  simple  form  is  found  is  quinquilharia, 
hardware.     Cf.  the  Fr.  quincaillerie  beside  quincaille. 


134 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


although  there  is  in  every  case  a  noun  on  which  they 
might  have  been  built,  there  is  also  a  verb,  as  for  example 
in  fustaria,  carpentry,  beside  which  exist  the  words  fust, 
wood,  and  fustar,  to  repair  (woodwork).  There  exist  also 
words  which  must  have  been  formed  on  verb-stems,  and 
these  will  be  reserved  for  the  succeeding  list.  The  source 
of  the  words  in  the  intermediate  list,  however,  noun  or 
verb,  it  is  impossible  to  state  with  any  certainty,  though  in 
most  cases  it  seems  probable  that  the  noun  was  the  base 
of  the  compound.  In  a  few  cases,  as  in  enfermaria, 
fermaria,  and  lecaria,  instead  of  the  noun  it  is  the  adjec- 
tives enferm,  ferm,  and  lee  which  may  have  been  at  the 
base.^ 

Words  \nth  a  noun  (adjective)  or  verb  at  the  base: 


barataria,  trafficking,  bargaining 

clnvaria,    treasuryship ;    treasury 

building 
comandaria,  sway,  command 

desmaria,  tithing 
divinaria,  soothsaying 

eisartaria,  bit  of  land  made  arable 

encantaria,  sorcery 
enfermaria,  hospital 

fachilharia,  sorcery 
fermaria,  fortress 
forsenaria,^  fury 

fustaria,  carpentry 

gabaria,  mockery;  also  chatter 

gatjaria,  pledge 


barata,    bargain,    and    baralar, 

traffic 
clau,  key,  and  clavar,  lock 

comanda  and    comandar,    com- 
mand 
desma,  tenth;  desmar,  tithe 
divin,  soothsayer,   and  divinar, 

foretell 
eisart,  grubbing,  and  eisartar, 

make  arable 
encan{t)  and  encantar,  charm 
enferm,   ill,    and    enfermar, 

make  ill 
fachilha  and  fachilhar,  charm 
ferm,  firm,  and  fermar,  shut  in 
forsen,  madness,  and  forsenar, 

rave 
fust,  wood,  and  fustar,  repair 
gab,  joke,  and  gabar,  mock 
gatje,  pledge,  and  gatjar,  pledge 


>  See  p.  137. 

'  Two  words  plus  suffix.     See  hybrid  formations,  p.  579. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


135 


gazanharia,  arable  (?)  land 

juraria,  office  of  "jurat" 
jutjaria,  office  of  judge 

lauzenjaria,  flattery 

lecaria,  dainties 
masonaria,  masonry 

meitadaria,  rent  amounting  to 

half  of  the  produce 
mejaria,  rent  consisting  of  half 

the  produce  of  a  farm 
mercandaria,  merchandise 

molinaria,  right  of  grinding 
monedaria,  coin;  mint 

notaria,  notaryship 
parelharia,     association ;     see 

-AIRIA,  below 
peatjaria,  toll 

penedensaria,^  penitent 

pescaria,  fishing 
poncharia,  pointing 
pregaria,  prayer 
sobransaria,  boasting 

tencharia,  dyeshop 


gazanh,  land  under  cultivation, 

and  gazanhar,  plow 
jur,  oath,  and  jurar,  swear 
jutge,    judge,    and   jutjar,    to 

judge 
lauzenja,  flattery,  and  lauzenjar, 

flatter 
lee,  dainty,  and  lecar,  lick 
mason,    mason,    and    masonar, 

wall  up 
vieitat,  half,  and  meitadar,  halve 

meg,  half 

viercan,  merchant,  and  mercan- 

dar,  do  business 
molin,  mill,  and  molinar,  grind 
moneda,   coin,  and  monedar,  to 

coin 
nota,  mark,  and  notar,  note 


peatge,  toll,  and  peatjar,  collect 

toll 
penedensa,   penance,   and   petie- 

densar,  do  penance 
pesca  and  pescar,  fish 
ponch{a)  and  ponchar,  point 
prec,  prayer,  and  pregar,  pray 
sobransa,   domination,    and   so- 

bransar,  subjugate  ( ?)  (R) 
tencha  and  tenchar,  dye 


Then  come  the  words  which  must  have  been  built  on 
verb-stems,  if  the  idea  of  the  addition  of  -ARIA  and  not 
-lA  be  granted,  as  there  is  no  noun  on  wiiich  they  could 
be  formed.  Flataria,  for  example,  must  have  been 
formed  by  adding   the   suffix  -ARIA  to  the   stem  flat- 


'  An  unusual  meaning  for  this  sufRx — that  of  a  person,  the  agent  of 
an  action.  Levy  lists  the  word  as  feminine.  It  looks  as  though  the  Lat. 
-ARIA  had  come  down  to  Prov.  unchanged,  the  word  being  learned. 


136  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

of  tlie  vorl)  flatar.     The  list  is  as  follows  and  contains 

mostly  abstracts:^ 

escorjaria,  place  for  flaying  escorjar,  flay 

flatarla,  flattery    ■  flatar,  flatter 

fretaria,  rubbing  J'retar,  rub 

leujaria,  levity,  frivolity  lenjar,  lighten 

manjaria,  victuals,  food  manjar,  eat 

mejansaria,  partition  mejansar,  mediate 

menuzaria,-  carpentry  menuzar,  diminish 

pagaria,  payment  pagar,  pay 

pararia,  f ulling-room ;  fulling  parar,  prepare 
parlaria,  chattering;   foolish  calls     parlar,  speak 

(also  -AIRIA) 

pilharia,  pillage  pilhar,  plunder 

plaidaria,  lawsuit,  quarrel  plaidar,  go  to  law 

plaidejaria,  lawsuit,  quarrel  plaidejar,  go  to  law 

raubaria,  robbery  raubar,  rob 

tuaria,  slaughter  tuar,  kill 

In  giving  the  second  list,^  several  words  (as  enfermaria, 
fermaria,  lecaria)  were  mentioned  which  might  have  either 
adjectives  or  verbs  at  their  base.  In  such  a  word  as 
fermaria,  fortress,  for  example,  we  find  two  possible 
sources,  the  adjective /en/i,  strong,  and  the  stem  oifermar, 
to  shut  in.  If  an}'  starting-point  is  necessary  for  the  adding 
of  -ARIA  to  a  verb-stem,  it  seems  possible  to  find  it  in 
this  word  fermaria.  Probably  with  the  original  meaning 
of  a  strong  place,  from  ferm,  it  could  have  been  later 
associated  with  the  verb  fermar,  to  shut  in.     Then,  like  so 

1  It  seems  likely  that  the  abstract  words  in  the  preceding  list — 
barataria,  encantaria,  fachilharia,  fustaria,  lauzenjaria,  etc. — were  formed 
on  verb-stems,  the  fact  of  the  noun's  existence  beside  the  verb  being 
only  accidental.  With  only  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  escorjaria,  where  no 
noun  is  found,  a  rule  might  be  given  that  abstracts  were  formed  on  verb- 
stems,  and  nouns  denoting  place,  office,  and  collectives  on  nouns.  In  the 
few  cases  where  the  nouns  apparently  formed  on  nouns  have  abstract 
meaning,  may  there  not  have  existed  a  verb  which  is  not  found  in  our  texts  ? 

2  Probably  not  derived  directly  from  this  verb,  but  from  menuzier, 
as  escudaria  from  escudier.     See  p.  131,  n.  2,  above. 

3  P.  134. 


Formation  of  Nouns  137 

many  of  the  suffixes  added  to  verb-stems  (-AMEN,  -ANSA, 

etc),  it  was  used  almost  entirely  in  forming  abstracts. 

The  hst  of  words  with  adjectives  at  their  base  follows: 

enfermaria,  hospital  enferm,  ill 

fermaria,  fortress  ferm,  strong 

Iccaria,  dainties  lee,  dainty 

malaudaria,  hospital  malaut,  ill 

melchantaria,  badness  meichan{i),  bad 

menudarias,  trifles  menut,  small 

Most  of  these  words  have  been  mentioned  in  a  previous 
list.i 

One  word  seems  to  be  formed  by  adding  -ARIA  to  a 
preposition  :^ 
contraria,  opposition,  obstacle  contra,  against 

Besides  all  of  the  words  just  given  under  -ARIA,  there 
are  several  other  words  ending  instead  in  -AIRIA,  which 
appears  to  be  only  another  development  of  the  compound 
suffix  -ARIU  plus  -lA,  and,  indeed,  a  rather  more  regular 
one.3     Though  -ARIUS  generally  became  -lER  in  Pro- 

1  Pp.  134-35. 

■  This  formation,  however,  probably  is  only  apparent.  The  word 
is  probably  connected  with  contrarius  or  contraria,  the  feminine  form. 
The  accentiiation  of  the  word  is  difficult  to  determine  from  the  examples. 
Cf.  the  O.Fr.  contraire. 

3  The  tvnn  forms  -ARIA  and  -AIRIA  are  rather  difficult  to  explain. 
The  combination  of  -ARIU-  plus  -lA  is  found  in  most  of  the  Romance 
languages  and  seems  therefore  to  have  been  formed  early  and  to  have 
been  of  frequent  use,  although  not  mentioned  by  either  Cooper  or  Olcott, 
both  of  whom  seem  to  ignore  double  suffixes.  The  development  should 
properly  be  -AIRIA  (cf.  -AIRADA,  etc.),  but  for  some  reason  not 
perfectly  clear  we  generally  find  -ARIA  instead.  The  change  in  form 
may  have  been  due  to  the  analogy  of  the  large  number  of  suffixes 
added  to  verb-stems — -ARIA  often  has  this  appearance  also— having  a 
as  the  stem-vowel,  on  account  of  which  -ARIA  instead  of  -lA  was  prob- 
ably taken  for  the  suffix.  This  theory  would  Hkewise  account  for  the 
Sp.  -ARIA,  which  is  also  peculiar  in  form,  -ARIUS  giving  -ERO.  The 
whole  subject  seems  uncertain,  however.  -ARIA  cannot,  however,  have 
come  about  hke  the  Fr.  -ERIE  (-IE  attached  to  -ER,  the  unaccented 
form  of  -lER) ,  as  -AIR  is  itself  the  form  in  use  when  unaccented.  -AIRIA 
is  sporadically  found,  possibly  helped  by  the  persistence  of  corresponding 
forms  ending  in  -lER.     See  above  list,  corratier,  etc. 


138  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

vengal, -lER  is  not  its  phonetic  development;  this  should 
rather  be  -AIR,  which  is  found,  indeed,  in  a  few  words, 
as  doaire<dotarium,  fruchaire<Jructuarium,  and  more 
especially  in  the  cases  in  which  another  suffix  was  attached 
to  -ARIU.  Thus  we  have  many  words  ending  in  such 
compound  suffixes  as  -AIRADA,  -AIRAL,  -AIRON,  etc. 
Under  -AIRIA  we  find: 

bevedairia,  drunkenness  bevenda,  drink 

bordelairia,  libertinage  bordel,  disreputable  house 

corratairia,^  brokership  corraticr,  broker 

crezensairia,'  surety,  bail  crezensa,  surety 

diablairia,  deviltry  diable,  devil 

ebriairia,  drunkenness  ebri,  drunk 

juratairia,  college  of  "jurats"  jurat,  "jurat" 

leudairia,  custom-house  leuda,  a  tax 

parelhairia,  association  parelha,  couple 

-ERIA  also,  which  appears  to  be  only  another  variation 
of  the  suffix  -ARIA,  is  found  in  three  words  :^ 

arrauberia,  robbery  arraubar,  rob 

franqueria,    land     exempt  from    franc,  free 

taxation 
polaseria,  poultry-market  "  polatz,  chicken 

-ART  (-ARDa) 

There  are  several  nouns  ending  in  -ART,  but  the  more 
common  use  of  the  suffix  was  to  form  adjectives.  Coming 
from  a  Germanic  -ARD  or  -HARD,  found  at  first  only  in 
proper  names,  such  as  Adalhard,  and  meaning  originally 
''hard,"  it  became  detached  to  be  used  as  a  regular  suffix, 

»  No  simple  word.     See  double  suffixes,  p.  395. 

'  See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

3  These  seem  to  be  the  only  examples  in  which  -ERIA  is  found,  and 
it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  first  two  are  Germanic  words.  They  probably 
came  in  through  France,  and  the  e  instead  of  a  may  be  due  to  Fr. 
influence. 


Formation  of  Nouns  139 

serving  to  form  adjectives  on  nouns,  the  proper  names 
from  which  the  suffix  was  detached  possibly  having  come 
to  be  regarded  as  words  denoting  the  dominant  char- 
acteristics of  the  persons  whom  they  named.  Then,  in 
many  words,  the  suffix  took  on  depreciative  force.  Later, 
it  was  also  added  to  the  stems  of  verbs  denoting  action, 
forming  adjectives  in  all  of  these  words.  Most  of  the 
nouns  ending  in  -ART  appear  to  be  only  adjectives  used 
substantively.     -ART  is  found  added  to  nouns  in : 


bastart,^  bastard 

bast,  pack-saddle 

colhart,  stallion 

colh,  testicle 

jacomart,    clapper    in     bells     on 

jac{o)me,  James 

steeples   (in   the   form   of   the 

figure  of  a  man  armed  with  a 

hammer) . 

palhart     (see    also    the  feminine 

palha,  straw 

form,    -ARDA,  given    below), 

poor  man;  rogue 

penart,"^  pheasant 

pena,  feather,  quill 

penart,^  double-edged  knife 

pena,  feather 

solart,^  sun 

sol,  sun 

The  suffix  is  added  to  adj 

ectives  in: 

baiart,  bay  horse 

bat,  bay 

velhart,  old  man 

velh,  old 

and  to  verbs  in : 

muzart,  loiterer,  dawdler  muzar,  gape,  dawdle 

1  The  connection  between  bastart  and  bast  is  not  clear  at  first  sight. 
Korting,  No.  1,265,  explains  the  word  bastart  as  a  child  conceived  on  a 
pack-saddle,  that  is,  the  offspring  of  a  runaway  match.  In  the  Die. 
Gen.,  the  word  is  explained  by  the  relations  of  muleteers  or  pack-saddle 
men  with  maids  at  inns. 

2  The  connection  between  penart  and  pena  seems,  in  the  one  case, 
to  be  due  to  the  long  feathers  of  the  pheasant,  and  in  the  other,  in  the 
use  of  this  kind  of  knife  in  cutting  quills. 

3  Solart  is  peculiar  in  showing  no  change  of  meaning  from  that  of 
the  simple  word.  It  is  omitted  in  the  little  Le\-y',  and  Raynouard's 
quotation  is  too  short  to  do  much  with. 


140  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

pendart,  hangman  pendre,  hang 

petart,  petard  pclar,^  burst 

pilhart,-^\  trooper,  servant  pilhar,  steal 

The  feminine  form  -ARDA  is  seen  in: 

galharda,  a  coin  (the  feminine  of 
the  adjective  galhart  used  sub- 
stantively).   See  adjectives 

palharda,     prostitute.     See     pal-     palha,  straw 
hart,  above 

-AS,    -ASA 

The  Provengal  endings  -AS  and  -ASA  are  generally 
derived  from  the  Latin  suffixes  -ACEUS,  -ACEA,  })ut,  as 
in  so  many  other  cases,  there  are  many  words  ending  in 
-AS  and  -ASA  which  cannot  represent  these  Latin  suffixes, 
and  therefore  have  to  be  dealt  with  separately.  Most  of 
the  words  in  -AS  and  -ASA  appear  to  he  Provencal  forma- 
tions, focaceani>fogasa,  buttered  roll  (French,  fouasse; 
Italian, /omcda;  Spanish,  hogaza),  being  the  only  word 
given  by  Meyer-Liibke^  as  Latin,  although  perhaps 
*cannabaceum  >  canaba.s  (Italian,  canavaccio;  Spanisii. 
canamazo)  may  be  assumed.  The  suffix  gave  an  idea  of 
quantity  to  the  simple  word,  or  greatness  in  size,  and 
then  depreciative  force. 

'  Petar  probably  exists,  although  Levj-  cannot  find  Raynouard's 
example.     Cf.  the  Fr.  peter. 

2  In  pilhart,  the  connection  with  pi7/iar  is  probably  due  to  the  thievish 
propensities  of  troopers  and  servants. 

3  II,  503. 


t Other  words  in  -ART  are  biroart,  a  kind  of  cloth;  estibart,  steward; 
Lombart,  Lombard,  and  minhart,  affected  person.  Biroart  is  obscure, 
estibart  is  entirely  of  Germanic  origin,  and  in  Lombart  the  suffix  is  only 
apparent.  In  minhart  the  stem  is  uncertain,  but  we  have  -ART,  possibly 
substituted  for  -OT.     See  minhot. 


Formation  of  Nouns  141 

The  words  in  -AS  representing  -ACEUS  with  this  aug- 
mentative (or  depreciative)  force  are  as  follows: 

canabas,  hempen  cloth  canebe,  hemp 

cartas,  large  dog  can,  dog 

diablas,  large  hateful  devil  diable,  devil 

ermas,  unplowed  land  erm,  desert 

fedas,  herd  feda,  sheep 

galatas,^  garret,  attic  Galata,  Galata  (a  tower  in  Con- 
stantinople) 

gorjas,  large  throat  gorja,  throat 

gravas,  sandbank  grava,  shore 

mausiinas,  large  mastiff  maustin,  mastiff 

merdas,  blackguard  merda,  dung 
nertas,    place    where    myrtles         iitrta,  myrtle 

abound 

palhas,  sweepings  palha,  straw 

sacas,  large  sack  sac,  sack 

sedas,-  f  sieve  seda,  silk 

There  are  also  two  words  that  are  apparently  formed  on 
verbs : 

crebas,  crevice;  see  also  crebasa         crebar,  crack,  pierce 
juzaigas,  ghetto  (see  Essais,  114)      juzaigar,  be  a  Jew;  judaize 

1  Probably  a  borrowing  from  Fr.,  as  it  is  found  in  the  works  of 
Eustache  Deschamps,  and  as  the  one  Prov.  example  is  in  an  inventory  of 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

2  Cf.  the  Fr.  sas.     Possibly  both  words  are  from  a  Lat.  setaciutn.  . 


t  There  is  also  a  word  of  Lat.  origin,  pedas,  trifle,  from  pitaceinn,  the 
late  Lat.  form  of  pittaceurn.     Cf.  the  Sp.  pedazo. 

There  are  also  several  words  ending  in  -as  in  which  these  letters  do 
not  represent  -ACEUS  at  all,  and  have  not  its  augmentative  or  depre- 
ciative force.  Such  words  are  cabas,  femoras,  ferias,  ferrias,  ipocras, 
matalas,  and  matras.     They  will  be  treated  individually: 

cabas,  basket,  has  probably  not  the  suffix  -ACEUS.  The  word 
appears  to  be  due  to  a  substantive  use  of  the  adjective  capax,  capacem, 
becoming  cabas,  just  as  pacem  became  pas  as  well  as  pats  and  patz. 

femoras,  manure-pile,  is  a  complete  puzzle  as  regards  its  ending. 
The  word  is  also  written  femeras  and  fomeras,  and  is  evidently  formed 
on  the  simple  word  fern.  The  s  would  at  first  sight  appear  to  be  the  plural  s 
added  to  fern  plus  the  suffix  -ERA;  but  Raynouard's  example  (111,301) 


142  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

The  words  in  -ASA  from  -ACEA   seem  generally  to 

have  had  the  same  augmentative  force  as  the  words  in  -AS, 

although  sometimes  this  idea  is  not  quite  so  obvious.     The 

list  follows: 

bonasa,^  calm  at  sea  bon,  good 

carnasa,  much  flesh  or  dead  cam,  flesh 

flesh 

carrasa,  pile  (of  wood)  carre  (?),  car 

coasa,  plait  of  hair,  pigtail  coa,  tail 

coirasa,  breastplate  cuer,  cor,  leather 

conha&a,  ax  conh,  wedge 
espinasa,    bramble-bush  (?),   i.e.,     espwa,  thorn 

place  grown  with  thorns 

ferrasa,  fire-shovel  ferra,  iron  trimming 

filasa,  flax  ready  for  spinning  fila,  thread 

golam,  large  mouth  gola,  throat 

golam,  gout  gota,  drop 

grimasa,  grimace  grima,  sadness 

jornadasa,-  long  day's  journey  Jornada,  day's  journey 

1  Formed  on  an  adjective  and  found  in  the  other  Romance  languages 
(Latin?). 

2  See  doulDle  suffixes,  p.  383. 


has  1  femoras,  and  Levy's  examples  (III,  433)  also  clearly  prove  it  to 
be  singular.  The  -AS  appears  to  be  the  suffix  -ACEUS  added  to  femor, 
a  form  built  on  fimus  through  its  having  changed  its  inflection  because  of 
the  analogy  of  stercus,  stercoris?  Femor  is  not  found,  although  femore- 
jar  is.  Femoras  might  be  a  bad  spelling  for  femeras,  of  course  (-ERAS  = 
-ARIUM+ACEUS),  but  that  would  be  unlike  the  usual  development 
of  -ARIL^S  in  combinations  (capairon,  denairal,  figairada,  mercadairet, 
etc.). 

ferias,  holidays,  seems  to  be  the  only  Lat.  word  feriae  (ace.  ferias) 
borrowed  in  Prov. 

ferrias,  bars  for  hanging  pothooks,  appears  to  be  the  Prov.  form  of 
the  Lat.  adjective  ferreus,  of  iron,  used  in  the  accusative  plural.  The 
noun  (meaning  bars)  with  which  it  must  have  been  regularly  used 
has  disappeared,  and  the  adjective  now  has  the  meaning  of  the  lost 
noun. 

ipocras,  a  sweetened  drink  made  of  roots,  is  due  to  a  mediaeval 
deformation  of  the  name  of  Hippocrates,  to  whom  the  drink  was  attrib- 
uted.    See  Die.  Gen.  under  hypocras. 

matalas,  mattress,  and  matras,  javelin,  have  not  the  suffix  -ACEUS. 
Matras  is  of  uncertain  origin. 


Formation  of  Nouns  143 

palhasa,  litter,  stubble  palha,  straw 

pigasa,  boar-spear  pic,  pickax 

pinasa,'\  pinnace  pin,  pine 

One  word  appears  to  be  formed  on  a  verb : 

liasa,  bundle  (cf.  French  liasse)        liar,  bind 

although  it  may  be  liazon(<  ligationem)  with   a  change 
of  suffix  that  is  represented. 

-IS,    -ISA 

With  the  suffixes  -AS  and  -ASA  from  -ACEUS,  -ACEA 
may  be  given  -IS  and  -ISA  as  coming  from  -ICIUS, 
-ICIA.  The  mascuhne  form  -IS  is  rarely  found  in 
Provencal,  brodis,  border,  edge,  mestis,  half-breed,  pastis, 
paste,  and  patis,  fine  shoe,  seeming  to  be  the  only  examples 
of  it.  All  of  these  words,  however,  may  have  been  origi- 
nally adjectives,  in  which  use  the  suffix  is  not  uncommon. 
For  example,  mestis  probably  represents  mixticius,^ 
of  mixed  breed,  and  is  merely  a  substantive  use  of  it; 
pastis  is  probably  derived  from  pasticius,  an  adjective 
derived  from  pasta,  paste;  brodis,  border,  edge,  may  come 
from  borda,  shore,  though  the  word  is  not  perfectly  clear; 
and  patis  is  obscure. 

The  feminine  form  -ISA<-ICIA  is  not  so  unusual, 
and  is  found  in : 

calmisa,  hedge  calm,^  heath,  uncultivated  land 

frachisa,  joint  fracha,  fracture 

palisa,  palisade,  paUng  pal,  stake 

1  Lat.  (see  Goelzer,  14.3),  and  formed  on  a  verb. 

2  See  Essais,  13,  note;  also  Levy,  I,  189. 


t  Crebasa,  crevice,  escasa,  crutch,  and  limasa,  slug,  also  are  found, 
but  are  probably  not  Prov.  formations.  For  crebasa,  cf.  the  Fr.  creoasse. 
For  escasa,  see  Du  Cange's  eschassa.  Limasa  is  probably  from  Himacea. 
For  corresponding  words  in  other  languages,  see  Korting,  No.  5,598,  and 
Diez,  197. 


144  Word-Formation  in  Provenq-al 

pelisa,  pelisse  pel,  skin 

planisa,  esplanade  plan,  plain 

sebisa,^  hedge  sep,  hedge 

As  is  the  case  with  -ITZ/  also  from  -ICIUS,  -IS  anS. 
-ISA  have  no  very  well-defined  force,  although  in  some 
words  diminutive  force  may  be  seen.  The  forms  -IS 
and  -ITZ  appear  to  be  really  the  same  suffix,  both  repre- 
senting the  Latin  -ICIUS.  When  this  suffix  comes  at  the 
end  of  words,  as  in  the  masculine  forms,  -ITZ  is  rather 
more  usual  than  -IS ;  within  words,  -ISA,  or  s  instead  of  tz, 
is  always  found.  The  forms  -ATZ  and  -ITZ,  being  of 
the  same  origin  as  -AS  and  -IS,  will,  therefore,  now  be 
studied. 

-ATZ,    -ETZ,    -ITZ,    -UTZ 

The  suffixes  -ATZ,  -ETZ,  -ITZ,  -UTZ  will  be  treated 
together  here  as  a  group.  Of  these,  -ATZ  is  fairly  com- 
mon; -ITZ  also  is  found  in  several  words;  -ETZ  is  verj^ 
rare;  -UTZ,  although  found  in  several  words,  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  true  suffix.  As  with  the  suffixes  -AS  and 
-IS,  the  source  of  -ATZ  and  -ITZ  appears  to  be  -ACEUS, 
-ICTUS.     In  force,  the  suifix  -ATZ   appears  to  be  both 

1  Sec  the  lists  immediately  following. 


t  A  number  of  other  words  in  -ISA,  mostly  of  Lat.  origin,  but  at 
any  rate  not  Prov.  formations,  should  also  be  mentioned :  corisa,  snuffling, 
probably  through  some  lost  Lat.  form,  from  the  Gr.  x^P'^t'"-  (^f-  It- 
corizza) ;  genisa,  young  heifer,  from  junicia  for  junix,  showing  the  adjec- 
tive force  that  the  suffix  had  originally;  laironisa,  theft,  is  from  latronicia, 
for  latrocinium,  showing  a  metathesis  and  a  change  of  gender;  matrisa  (  ?), 
midwife,  from  matricia,  an  adjective  derived  from  matrix  ( ?) ;  orredisa, 
filth,  excrements,  from  *horridicia  (?),  derived  from  horridus;  panisa 
(also  panitz),  panic — grass,  from  panicia  for  panica;  podisa,  receipt, 
from  apodissa,  apodixa,  (see  these  words  in  Du  Cange).  Most  of  these 
words,  as  genisa,  matrisa,  orredisa,  and  panisa,  seem  to  have  been  origi- 
nally adjectives.  Profetisa,  prophetess,  has  probably  not  -ICIUS  at  all, 
but  -ISSA,  which  regularly  became  -ESA. 


Formation  of  Nouns  145 

augmentative  and  depreciative.     It  is  found  in  the  fol- 
lowing words  joined  to  nouns: 

asclatz,  splinter  ascla,  splinter 

astelatz,^  log,  stump  astela,  splint  from  asta 

cabasatz,  large  basket  cabas,  basket 

corsegatz,  large,  hateful  body  cors,  body 

estopatz,  linen,  tow  estopa,  tow 

evescatz,  bad  bishop  evesc,  bishop 

ferratz,  pail  fer,  iron 

glevatz,  bad  clod  gleva,  glebe 

pegatz,  pitch-cake  pega,  pitch 

plojatz,  heavy  rain  ploja,  rain 

polatz,'\  young  chicken  pol,  chicken 

-ETZ  seems  to  exist  only  in  cabetz,  collar,  throat,  from 
cap,  head,  but  -ETZ  here  may  possibly  represent  -ITIUS, 
instead  of  -ICIUS,  and  it  is  probably  not  a  Provengal 
formation. 

-ITZ^  representing  -ICIUS  is  found  added  to  nouns  in  a 

few   words,    with   perhaps    no    very    well-defined    force, 

though  probably  augmentative: 

esportitz,  kind  of  basket  esporia,  wallet 

gotitz  (?),  drain  (?)  gota,  drop 

pelitz,  kind  of  poor  wool  pel,  skin 

postitz,  tt  door  posta,  plank 

-UTZ  is  found  in  three  words  of  more  or  less  doubt- 
ful origin,  so  that  the  existence  of  -UCEUS  here  is  not 
sure  in  any  case. 

avenutz,  ebony-tree:  This  appears  to  be  derived  from 
the  Latin  ebenus,  coming  through  the  Old  French  form 

1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  382. 

2  For  -ITZ  in  the  combinations  -ADITZ,  -EDITZ,  see  these  suffixes. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  there  is  olfatz,  sense  of  smell,  from  olfacius  (?). 

tt  Of  Lat.  origin  there  is  celitz,  hair  shirt,  from  ciliciujn;  naritz,  nose, 
from  naricius,  derived  from  narix;  and  noiritz,  young  of  an  animal,  from 
nutricius,  derived  from  nutrix.  Pastitz  has  already  been  treated  as  pastis 
under  -IS,  and  panitz  under  the  feminine  form  panisa,  the  two  forms 
making  tolerably  clear  the  original  use  as  adjective. 


146  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

henus.  This  is  the  way  in  which  Meyer-Liibke  explains 
the  Spanish  abenuz} 

estruz  seems  to  represent  struthio. 

glandiitz,  acorn,  from  glan(t),  acorn,  in  Avhich  the 
suffix  makes  no  change  in  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

The  true  Provencal  suffixes  in  the  al)ove  groups  are 
-AS,  -ASA,  and  -ATZ;  -IS,  -ISA,  and  -ITZ,  which  are 
all  derived  from  -ACEUS,  -ACEA  and  -ICIUS,  -ICIA. 
-ICIUS  and  -UCEUS  are  by  no  means  certain  in  Provencal. 

-ASTRE 

There  are  several  words  in  Provengal  with  the  ending 
-ASTRE,  most  of  which  seem  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin 
-ASTER,  as  seen  in  patraster.  Provengal  has  the  de- 
scendant of  this  word  in  pairastre,  and  also  the  following 
words : 

falcastre,  sickle-shaped  knife. 
The  simple  word  here  is  fals, 
fans.  This  looks,  then,  like  an- 
other Latin  formation.  Com- 
pare the  Italian  falcastro. 

filhastre,  stepdaughter  fdha,  daughter 

folnstre,  fool  (from  fol,  fool  [?]). 
Originally  used  as  an  adjective, 
however  (of.  French  foldtre), 
meaning  "foolish,"  and  prob- 
ably formed  on  the  adjective 
fol.  The  word  appears  to  be  a 
substantive  use  of  the  adjective. 

mairaslre,^  stepmother  maire,  mother 

The  suffix  when  added  to  nouns  is  thus  depreciative. 
There  is  also  one  other  word  with  the  ending  -ASTRE 
wliich    is    somewhat    puzzling.     This    is    ecleziastre,    an 

1 II,  508. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are  mentastre,  wild  mint,  from  mentastrum, 
and  pilastre,  pilaster,  from  pUastrum. 


Formation  of  Nouns  147 

ecclesiastic.  The  difficulty  fiere  is  in  the  meaning.  If 
the  word  represents  ecclesia  plus  -ASTER,  it  should 
mean  "bad  church,"  or  something  similar.  If  the  word, 
on  the  other  hand,  comes  from  ecclesiasticus,  how  account 
for  the  form?  Gleizastgue,  churchly,  which  we  should 
expect,  exists,  and  Levy  also  gives  gleizastgle^  with  an  in- 
terrogation point.  The  I  of  this  word  might  become  r  by 
dissimilation,  but  the  disappearance  of  the  g  would  still 
have  to  be  accounted  for.  It  appears  possible  that 
we  have  here  gleiza  plus  -ASTRE,  and  that  becoming 
confused  with  gleizastgle  from  ecclesiasticus,  it  took  its 
meaning. 

-AT 

The  Provengal  suffix  -AT  requires  a  somewhat  detailed 
treatment,  as  several  different  Latin  suffixes  are  repre- 
sented in  it:  there  is  (1)  the  suffix  -ATTUS,  denoting 
the  young  of  animals;  (2)  a  Latin  -ATUS,  denoting  rank; 
more  important  than  either  of  these,  however,  is  the  (3) 
substantive  use  of  the  past  participle.  This  gives  -AT 
in  the  first  conjugation;  but  the  endings  for  the  others 
(-IT  and  -UT)  will  be  given  here,  as  the  three  endings 
together  form  a  distinct  group  and  special  kind  of  forma- 
tion; (4,  5)  words  apparently  formed  by  using  the  suffix 
-AT  attached  directly  to  nouns,  with  no  verb  at  their 
base,  and  in  a  few  cases  with  a  prefix  also  attached,  this 
being  inseparable  from  the  word;  finally  (6),  the  Latin 
neuter  suffix  -ATUM  appearing  in  -AT  in  a  few  cases 
with  exactly  the  same  force  as  described  under  the  words 
in  -ADA  from  -ATA,  the  feminine  form  of  the  past 
participle. 

I IV,  136. 


148  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

1.  -AT  from  -ATTUS  is  found  in  tlu^  following  words 

denoting  the  young  of  animals: 

aigronat,  young  heron  aigron,  heron 

aiicat,  young  goose  auca,  goose 

balenat,  young  whale  balena,  whale 

cerviat,  young  deer  cervia,  deer 

colombat,  young  dove  colomba,  dove 

creagat,  young  sturgeon  creac,  sturgeon 
dragonnt,  young  dragon,  thread-     dragon,  dragon 

worm 

galinal,  Uttle  hen  galina,  hen 

irondat,  young  swallow  ironda,  swallow 

leonat,  young  lion  leon,  lion 

lebrat,  young  hare  lebre,  hare 

lobat,  young  wolf  loba,  wolf 

mulat,^  mule  mul,  mule 

paserat,'\  young  sparrow  pasera,  sparrow 

Also  probably  added  to  an  adjective,  it  is  seen  in: 
vairat,  mackerel  vair,^  variegated 

2.  Besides  -AT  coming  from  -ATTUS,^  there  is  a  suffix 
-AT  coming  from  a  Latin  -ATUS,  which  was  attached  to 
nouns  to  denote  rank,  office,  or  position,  as  in  considatus, 
etc.  A  number  of  words  in  -AT  with  this  meaning  are 
found  in  Provengal,  but  most  of  them  can  be  traced 
Ijack  to  words  found  in  Latin. 

The  probable  Provencal  formations  follow  for  -AT 
denoting  rank  or  position: 

1  The  only  translation  given  for  mulat  is  mule,  not  young  mule, 
but  -AT  must  represent  -ATTUS  here.  The  suffix  seems  to  have  lost 
its  force,  perhaps  through  being  influenced  by  mulct,  in  which  the  suffix 
-ET  had  lost  its  original  diminutive  force. 

2  There  is  also  a  noun  voir,  denoting  a  kind  of  variegated  fur. 

3  For  -IT<-ITTUS,  denoting  the  young  of  animals,  see  the  suffix 
-IT,  p.  239,  below. 


t  There  are  also  several  words  in  -AT  beside  which  no  simple  forms 
are  found.  Such  are  buzat  and  creat  (found  also  as  buzac  and  creac,  as 
given  under  -AC  above) .  That  -AT  could  be  added  to  -AC  maj-  be  seen 
in  creayat  above,  but  here  it  seems  to  be  substituted  for  it. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


149 


arquidiquenat,  archdeaconate.  Di- 

aconatus  is  found  in  Latin  (see 

Goelzer,  99),  but  there  seems  to 

be  no  trace  of  -AT  added  to  the 

compound  word. 
doctoral,     doctorate.     The    same 

word  is  found  in  other  Romance 

languages,  but  is  it  Latin  ? 
ducat,  duchy  due,  duke 

notariat,  notaryship  notari,  notary 

oficialat,  official  court  oficial,  official 

personat,  benefice  in  a  cathedral; 

from    persona,    personage  (?). 

Personatus  as  an  adjective  is 

found  in  Latin,   but   personat 

does  not  appear  to  be  a  sub- 
stantive use  of  the  word. 
prebostat,  office  of  provost;  court-     prebost,  provost 

house 
renhat,'\  kingdom  renh,  reign 

3.  Another  source  of  the  Provengal  suffix  -AT  is  the 
past  participle  of  verbs  in  -ar.^  This  was  very  often  used 
substantively,  and  gives  another  class  of  words  with  the 
ending  -at. 

Substantive  use  of  the  past  participles  of  verbs  in  -ar: 


apariat,  customer 

argentat,  a  stuff  connected  with 

the  restoration  of  paint 
blasmat,  blame 
coUivat,  cultivated  bit  of  land 


apariar,  join,  unite,  couple 
argentar,  to  plate 

blasmar,  blame 
coUivar,  cultivate 


I  These  words,  together  with  the  past  participles  in  -IT  and  -UT 
given  below,  belong  properlj^  to  the  nouns  formed  from  verbs  by  a  simple 
change  of  meaning,  but  they  are  placed  here  on  account  of  being  closely 
connected  with  other  words  in  -AT  that  are  not  formed  on  verbs  at  all, 
the  development  of  which  they  help  to  make  clear. 


t Words  omitted  above  because  found  in  Latin  are:  apostolat, 
apostleship  (Goelzer,  98  <apos<oZa<Ms);  clergat,  ecclesiastic  (Goelzer,  99, 
dericatus) ;  comtat,  courtshipK  comitatus;  consolat,  consn\aXe<  consulatus; 
evescat,  bishopric  (Goelzer,  99,  episcopatus);  patriarcat,  patriarchate; 
primal,  primate  (Goelzer,  99,  primatus). 


150 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


comensat,  beginning 

comjat,  leave 

cozinat,  food  (something  cooked) 

creat,  child  (thing  created) 

crozat,  a  coin  (marked  with  a 
cross) 

dechat  and  dictat,  poetry 

cuidat,  cujat,  thought 

deputat,  deputy 

domenjat,^  vassal 

donat,  lay  brother  (one  who  has 
given  himself) 

eisaurelhat,  man  with  sUt  ears 

embarat,  ambarat,-  a  kind  of  forti- 
fication 

empachat,  obstacle 

empastat,  pie,  pastry 

emprenhat,  foetus 

endodrinat,  scholar 

endomenjat,^  vassal;  also  property 

engorgat,  reservoir  above  a  mill 

enovat,  disposal,  arrangement 

ensenhat,  doctrines 

eretat,  inheritance,  property 

faisonat,  equipment,  outfit 

falhat,  person  in  wrong 

ferrat,  pail,  bucket 

forat,^  hole 

galiat,  deception 

gfitoi,  throwing;  also  coping 

gostat,^  lunch 

gotat,  cloth  with  spots 

laurat,  plowed  field 

levat,  yeast 


comensar,  begin 

comjar,  give  leave 

cozinar,  cook 

crear,  create 

crozar,  cross;  bear  cross 

dechar  and  dictar,  compose 
cuidar,  cujar,  think 
deputar,  depute 

donar,  give 

eisaurelhar,  sUt  ears 
embarrar,  inclose,  fence  in 

empachar,  prevent 
empastar,  cover  with  paste 
emprenhar,  impregnate 
emloctrinar ,  teach 
endomenjar    (not    found    in 

infinitive) 
engorgar,  stuff  up 
enovar,  dispose 
ensenhar,  teach 
eretar,  inherit 
faisonar,  equip 
falhar,  fail,  be  in  the  wrong 
ferrar,  bind  with  iron 
forar,  pierce 
galiar,  deceive 
gitar,  throw 
gostar,  taste 
gotar,  drip 
laurar,  plow 
levar,  raise 


1  The  infinitives  domenjar  and  endomenjar  are  not  found. 

'  Should  not  be  confused  with  emharatar.  The  word  is  clearly 
connected  with  embarrar  from  barra,  which  is  given  in  Raynouard  with 
a  single  r,  as  well  as  with  the  double  one. 

•A  Lat.  gustatus  exists  with  the  meaning  of  "taste";  foratus  and 
populatus  are  also  found  with  different  meanings  from  those  found  in  the 
Prov.  forat  and  pohlat. 


Formation  of  Nouns  151 

listrat,  striped  cloth  listrar,  to  marble 

malhat,  net  malhar,  make  meshes 

meisonat,  harvested  fruits,  harvest  meisonar,  harvest 

ostalat,  host,  companion  ostalar,  lodge 

pavat,  pavement  pavar,  pave 

pavezat,  soldier  protected  by  a  shield  paveza',  cover,  protect 

pesejat,  breaking  pesejar,  break  to  pieces 

plaidejat,  pleading  plaidejar,  plead 

poblat,  built-up  district  poblar,  people,  establish 

prezurat,  rennet  prezurar,  press 

publicat,  publication  publicar,  pubhsh 

semenat,'\  sown  field  semenar,  sow 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  above  examples,  most  of  the 
words  in  the  list  are  not  pure  abstracts,  but  represent 
rather  the  thing  or  the  person  acted  on  by  the  verb.  They 
are  in  all  cases  substantive  uses  of  the  past  participle. 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  other  conjugations,  and 
the  cases  in  which  their  past  participles  are  used  as  nouns 
will  be  given  here  while  dealing  with  past  participles. 
Thus  for  the  verbs  ending  in  -ir  we  find  the  past  parti- 
ciples in  -it  used  substantively: 

abordit,  abortion,  miscarriage  abordir,  miscarry 

ardit,  daring  ardir,  embolden 

bastit,  building  bastir,  build 

brugit,  noise  brugir,  make  noise 

escroisit,  shock  escroisir,  crush 

grevit,  injury  *grevir^ 

partit,  arrangement  of  a  difference     partir,  arrange  (a  difference) 

plevit,  pledge  plevir,  pledge 

And  for  the  remaining  verbs  the   past    participle  in 

-UT  is  used  substantively  in: 

contengut,  contents  contener,  contain 

rendiU,  lay  brother  rendre,  surrender,  give  up 

I  Grevir  is  not  found.     The  verb  meaning  "to  injure"  is  greviar  or 
greujar. 


t  Other  Prov.  words  in  -AT  which  were  formed  in  Lat.  are:  cairat, 
four-cornered  stone,  from  the  Lat.  quadraium,  corner;  jutjat,  judgment, 
ivova  judicatum;  mandat,  vaandate,  ivora.  mandatum;  nominat,  nominative, 


152 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


the 


irange,  orange 
escriptura,  scripture 
gabela,  a  tax 


4.  From  nouns  formed  in  this  way,  the  next  step  taken 
appears  to  have  been  the  formation  of  nomis  on  nouns 
without  the  mediation  of  any  verb,  yet  having  the  force 
of  the  participial  nouns  just  described  and  given  in  the 
preceding  Ust. 

Thus  we  find: 

iranjat,  orange-colored  cloth 
escripturat,  learned  man 
gabelat,     goods     on    which 

"gabela"  is  paid 
julhat,  coin  with  a  hly  stamped  on 

it,  issued  for  the  first  time  in 

the  kingdom  of  Naples  under 

Charles  II.    Du  Cange  has  both 

the  forms  julhatus  (and  julhata) 

and  gigliatus.     The  form  of  the 

word  is  probably  due  to  the 

lily  (Italian  giglio^)  stamped  on 

it,  influenced  also  by  the  name 

of  Robert  de  Juli;    or  possibly 

the  form  of  the  word  may  be 

entirely  due  to  his  name. 
pebrat,  pepper-colored  cloth 
pinholat,    confectionery    contain- 
ing pine-seeds 
portionat,  one  who  has  received 

his  portion 
puat,  weaver's  comb 
sabatat,  a  religious  sect.  The  con- 
nection   between    the    derived 

and  the  simple  word  is  not  very 

clear,  but  the  sect  must  have 

been  named  from  the  shoes  they 

wore.     See     Du     Gauge's    sa- 

batati. 

There  are  also  a  few  words  formed  without  any  verb 

1  Cf.  crozat,  p.  150,  above. 


pebre,  pepper 
pinhol,  pine-seed 

portion,  portion 

pua,  nail,  point,  tooth 
sabata,  shoe 


from  nominatus;  optat,  wish,  from  optatum;  oral,  prayer,  from  oratus; 
prenhat,  offspring,  from  praegnaius;  prononciat,  decision,  from  pronun- 
tiatum. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


153 


at  their  base,  yet  which  add  a  prefix  at  the  same  time.^ 

Such  are: 

emboquiparlat,  wag.     This  seems 

to  be  made  up  of  em,  boca,  and 

parlat,  from  parlar,  there  being 

no  verb  with  the  prefix.     For 

the    i,    compare    the    Spanish 

compounds   barbiespeso,    barbi- 

lampino,    pelilargo,    etc.     Em- 
boquiparlat looks  Uke  a  word 

coined  for  temporary  use. 
ensabatat,^  a  religious  sect 

escodat,  skin  without  the  fleece  ( ?) 
esponhat,   a  man  whose  wrist  is 
cut  off 

5.  Besides  the  forms  in  which  -AT  appears  to  indicate 

a  substantive  use  of  the  past  participle,  it  seems  to  be 

added  in  a  few  cases  to  nouns  to  which  it  gives  no  real 


shoe  (see  sabatat  in  the 
preceding  list) 
coa,  tail  ( ?) 
from  ponh,  wrist  ( ?) 


change  of  meaning,  or 

baizat,  kiss 
brocat,  large  pitcher 
cadenat,  chain 
cledat,  lattice,  trelUs 
conventat,  convent 
coralat,  a  kind  of  ship 
cubat,  washtub 
dogat,  tub,  canal 
feirat,  market  ( ?) 
forcat,  large  fork 
gojat,  young  fellow,  lad 


none  that  can  be  classified: 

bais,  kiss 

broc,  pitcher 

cadena,  chain 

cleda,  hurdle,  screen 

conven{t),  convent 

coral,  kind  of  ship 

Cuba,  tub 

doga,  ditch 

feira,  fair 

fore,  fork 

goja,^  girl,  maiden 


1  These  words  are,  therefore,  nominal  parasyntheta,  under  which  head- 
ing they  will  again  appear  (p.  527).  They  are  given  here  only  to  make 
the  Ust  of  words  in  -AT  complete.  Adjectival  parasyntheta  are  more 
common  than  the  nominal  ones. 

2  A  rather  obscure  word  in  the  same  passage,  and  evidently  denoting 
another  religious  sect,  is  encrivelhat,  from  crivelar,  to  sift  through  (?). 
It  seems  to  be  a  parasynthetic  formation  like  ensabatat.  See  parasyntheta 
(p.  527). 

3  In  O.Prov.  only  the  feminine  form  of  the  simple  word  is  found,  and 
the  only  masculine  form  is  with  the  suffix.  This  is  also  true  of  the  Mod. 
Prov.  goujo  and  goujat.  In  Fr.,  only  the  derived  masculine  form  goujat 
is  found. 


154 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


grunt,  crane,  lifting-machine 
palisat,  palisade 
plaisat,  hedge 
porrat,  leek,  wart 
senhorat,  master 
valhat,^  valley 


grua,  crane 
palisa,  palisade 
plais,  hedge 
porre,  leek 
senhor,  master 
valh,  valley 


6.  There  is  also  one  more  case  in  which  the  suffix  -AT 
is  frequently  found.  This  is  the  case  of  the  Latin  suffix 
-ATUM,  the  neuter  form  of  the  past  participle  of  the 
first  conjugation  detached  from  verbs  and  added  instead 
to  nouns.  It  generally  forms  collectives,  and  in  every 
way  is  similar  in  meaning  to  the  words  ending  in  -ADA, 
formed  with  the  feminine  form  of  the  participle,  before 
described. 


The  hst  follows: 

ambachat,  embassy 
barnat,  troop  of  nobles 
cabrionat,  rafterage 
causal,  footwear 
codonat,  quince  preserve 
culhierat,-  spoonful 
descat,  basketful 
escat,^  a  measure 
espinat,  briars,  underbrush 
faisonat,    bundle    of    peeled 

branches 
fangat,  slough 

1  Some  of  the  words  in  the  above  Ust  have  sUghtly  augmentative 
force,  as  brocat  and  forcat.  This  may  be  due  to  confusion  with  -AT, 
a  form  of  -ATZ  (see  above).  The  confusion  of  these  two  suffixes  of 
similar  sound  may  be  seen  in  the  Fr.  cadenas.  Cornelhat  (see  p.  155,  n.  t) 
is  another  possible  augmentative  form. 

2  The  form  culhierat  instead  of  culhairat  is  worthy  of  observation. 
The  word  culhier  is  not  of  Prov.  formation,  and  there  are  no  Prov. 
formations  in  -lER  adding  -AT  to  give  a  starting-point  for  words  in 
-AIRAT. 

'Formation  obscure. 

<  Faison  is  not  found  with  this  meaning,  and  we  should  expect  faisat. 
Faison  may  have  existed,  however,  and  would  be  a  natural  augmenta- 
tive of  fa  is. 


*ambach  (not  found) 
baron,  noble 
cabrion,  rafter 
causa,  shoe 
codon,  quince 
culhier,  spoon 
desc,  basket 

espina,  thorn 
oak    fais,*  bundle 

fane,  mud 


Formation  of  Nouns  155 

fogat,  hearth-tax  Joe,  fire 

folhat,  lath,  wood  folk,  leaf 

manat,^  handful  vian,  hand 

nogat,  oil-cake  noga,  nut 

palmat,^  span  palm,  palm 

peirat,  sidewalk,  quay,  yard  peira,  stone 

pelhat,  clothing  pelh,  skin 

pomat,^  cider  pom,  apple 

ponhat,^  handful  ponh,  fist 

postat,  palisade  post,  post 

feuZafjt  roof  ^cwZa,  tile 

Possible  adjective-formations  are  seen  in  rustat,  coarse- 
ness, on  ruste,  coarse,  and  escartat,  greediness,  on  escart, 
tenacious,  in  Raynouard.  Levy,  however,  objects  to  this 
adjective,  and  strikes  it  out.  The  noun  also  may  be  a 
mistake  for  escurtat.-  Rustat  may  be  a  shortened  form 
of  rustetat  with  the  suffix  -TAT.jj 

-ATGE,  -ETGE,  -ITGE 

The  Provencal  suffix  -ATGE  is  derived  from  a  Latin 
-ATICUM,  the  neuter  form  of  the  Latin  adjective  suffix 
-ATICUS.  This  neuter  form,  then,  is  used  in  forming- 
nouns,  generally  on  nouns,  but  it  is  sometimes  attached  to 
verb-stems,  and  occasionally  to   adjectives.     The   three 

1  Corresponding  words  exist  in  -ADA. 

2  See  Levy,  III,  158-59. 


f  Estat,  position,  is  from  Lat.  staturn. 

Also  a  word  uncertain  in  development  of  meaning,  cornelhat, 
large  crossbow,  apparently  formed  on  cornelha,  crow.  The  -AT  here  is 
apparently  augmentative  (the  crossbow  being  called  a  crow  on  account 
of  its  shape).     This  word  might  therefore  be  placed  in  list  5. 

tt  Other  words  in  -AT  difficult  to  classify,  or  obscure,  are:  moral, 
black  cloth;  mainat,  chUd;  mescal,  a  kind  of  cloth;  petal,  a  coin;  and 
proestrat,  protostrator,  an  official  in  the  Byzantine  court.  Moral  is  the 
adjective  moral,  black,  used  substantively;  mainal  is  probably  an  imita- 
tion of  the  Fr.  mainet,  the  name  by  which  the  j^outhful  Charlemagne 
was  known.     The  formation  of  the  other  words  is  more  or  less  obscure. 


150  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

kinds  of  formations  will  be  given  in  separate  lists,  and 
the  words  which,  for  example,  may  have  been  formed  on 
a  noun  or  on  a  verb-stem  -will  be  given  in  another  list 
between  the  formations  on  nouns  and  those  on  verbs. 

The  ending  -ATGE  seems,  in  the  first  place,  to  have 
been  used  Avith  the  meaning  of  a  tax  to  be  paid,  with  which 
meaning,  indeed,  it  is  found  in  Latin.^  It  also  expresses 
the  idea  of  some  kind  of  feudal  right,  as  in  teulatge,  etc., 
and  also  occupation,  office,  or  condition  (preveiratge, 
vasalatge,  etc.).  Oftener  still,  however,  it  has  collective 
force,  as  in  captalatge,  fardatge,  granatge,  and  ramatge, 
and  this  meaning  can  be  seen  in  some  words  which  at 
first  sight  appear  abstract  rather  than  collective  {barn- 
atge,  Jornatge,  linhatge,  etc.). 

Nevertheless,  a  great  many  words  actually  have  real 
abstract  force.  These,  however,  unlike  the  words  with 
other  meanings,  are  generally  formed  on  verbs,  espe- 
cially where  the  abstract  denotes  action  and  not  state  or 
position.  Yet  some  of  the  meanings  conveyed  by  the 
suffix  when  attached  to  nomis  are  so  nearlj^  abstract  that 
the  distinction  is  sometimes  hard  to  maintain.  Fre- 
quently, also,  the  English  word  used  to  translate  the 
Provencal  one-  furthers  the  confusion.  When  words 
have  meanings  different  from  those  that  their  formation 
would  lead  us  to  expect,^  comments  will  be  made  on 
them  in  the  notes. 

1  Meyer-Llibke,  II,  570. 

=  Thus,  "nobility"  (probably  rollectivc)  and  "administration" 
(office  of  intendant). 

•  That  is,  abstracts  formed  on  verbs,  words  with  the  other  meanings 
on  nouns,  and  occasionally  on  adjectives.  Exceptions  are  mostly  in  the 
nouns,  where  the  abstract  force  is  often  only  apparent.  There  may, 
however,  have  been  some  backward  influence  of  the  verbal  formations 
on  the  nominal  ones. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


157 


1.  The  noun-formations  will  be  given  first: 


alatge,^  covered  way,  gallery 

auratge,  wind 

hailiatge,  administration,  steward- 
ship 

bandeiratge,-  a  field-right 

barnatge,  nobihty 

bladatge,  corn-crop 

bontatge,^  goodness 

borratge,  borage  (a  plant) 

boscatge,  hedge 

bovatge,  tax  on  oxen 

capitanatge,  captaincy 

captalatge,  collection  of  leaders 

carnatge,  dead  flesh 

cazalatge,  habitation 

civadatge,  tax  on  oats 

comtalatge,^  tax  on  meadows  (?), 
right  of  measuring,  or  dwelling- 
tax 

copatge,  tax  on  sale  of  corn 

coratge,  courage 

cordatge,  cordage 

corsatge,  form 

destralatge,  procuring,  pandering 

drechatge,  right,  title 

erbatge,  meadows ;  money  for  pas- 
ture-right 

ermitatge,  hermitage 

esponderatge,  administration 

espoi  latge,  paying  of  the  "esporla" 
tax 

esquevinatge,  position  of  alderman 


ala,  wing 
aura,  air 
baile,  intendant 


baron,  baron,  noble 
blada,  wheat 
bontat,  goodness 
borra,  hair,  floss 
bosc,  woods 
bou,  ox 

capitan,  captain 
captal,  leader 
cam,  flesh 
cazal,  house  ( ?) 
civada,  oats 


copa{7),  cutting 
cor,  heart 
corda,  cord 
cors,  body 
destral,  pander 
drech,  right 
erba,  herb,  grass 

ermita,  hermit 

espondier  ( ?),  administrator 

esporla,  a  tax 

esquevin,  alderman 


1  See  Du  Cange,  alea,  aleya.  Levy  also  gives  a  reference  to  Rev. 
des  Lang.  Rom.,  XXXII,  528,  where  the  word  is  discussed. 

2  The  only  simple  Prov.  word  is  bandeira,  banner,  which  will 
hardly  do  as  a  base-word  unless  it  has  some  other  meaning.  Du  Cange 
gives  handeragium,  but  only  in  late  texts.     See  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

3  Peculiar  in  form.  There  is  a  substitution  of  -ATGE  for  -TAT 
(presumably  mistaken  for  -AT,  since  the  base  is  bont  instead  of  hon). 

*  The  only  base  possible  seems  to  be  comtal,  "of  a  count."  What  is 
the  connection  between  the  two  words  ? 


1.58 


AVORD-FORMATION    IN    PrOVENCAL 


fardalge,  heap  of  rags 
farinatge,  corn-tax 
fenatge,  woven  straw 
feuatge,  infeodation 
filholalge,^   godchildship,   or   god- 
child's gift 
j'olatgc,  foolishness 
folhatge,  fohage 
Jorestatge,  forestry 
formatge,  cheese 
fornatge,  baking 
fornalatge,  tax  for  use  of  oven 
fourratge,  fodder 
fromentatge,^  tax  on  corn  crops 
fruchatge,  fruits,  fruit  trees 
galiotaige,  coast-watch  service 
garbatge,  tax  on  sheaves 
gleizatge,  ecclesiastical  right;  diocese 
granatge,  grain 
granhatge^ 

guizonatge,  safe-conduct 

justiciatge,  jurisdiction 

lengatge,  language 

maratge,  shore,  coast 

mazatge,  hamlet 

mesatge,  message,  messenger 

mojatge,  kind  of  tax  on  each  hogs- 
head of  wheat 

mostatge,  tax  in  must 

nautanatge,  fare,  toll 

navatge,  tax  on  the  chartering  of 
boats 

nertatge,  tax  collected  from  myrtle 
gatherers 

noirisatge,  feeding,  nursing 

omatge,*  omenatge,  homage 

ombratge,  shade 


farda,  garment 
farina,  corn 
fen,  straw 
feu,  fief 
fdhol,  godchild 

fol,  fool 

folk,  leaf 

forest,  forest 

forma,  form 

forn,  oven 

*fornal,  from  forn,  oven 

fourre,  fodder 

fromen{t),  corn 

fruch,  fruit 

galiot,  pirate 

garba,  sheaf 

gleiza,  church 

gran,  grain 

granha,  cluster,  string  (of 

garlic) 
guizon,  guide 
justicia,  justice 
lenga,  tongue 
mar,  sea 
mas,  house 
mes,  messenger 
moi,  hogshead 

most,  must 

nau,  ship 

nerta,  myrtle 

noirisa,  nurse 
om{e),  man 
omhra,  shade 


'  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383.      ^  Fromentagium  is  found  in  Du  Cange. 

3  The  meaning  of  granhatge  is  not  certain.     -ATGE,  however,  here 
seems  to  give  collective  force  to  granha. 

*  A  Mediaeval  Lat.  hominaticujn  is  found. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


159 


padoen{t),    pasturing,    right    of 

pasturing 
paison,  pasturage 
pal,  stake 


padoentatge,  pasturing,  right  of 
pasturing 

paisonatge,  right  of  pasturing 

palatge,  tax  on  the  mooring  of 
boats 

palastratge,^  outer  part  of  lock 

paponatge,  inheritance  from  a 
grandfather 

paratge,-  rank 

parentatge,  relationship;  relations, 
family 

parofianatge,  parish-rights 

patronatge,  administration 

pelatge,  hair,  color  of  the  hair 

pelegrinatge,  pilgrimage 

personatge,  personage 

piucelatge,  virginity 

poderatge,  power 

pontatge,  pontonatge,^  toll  for  cross- 
ing a  bridge 

portanatge,^  entrance  fee 

potatge,  soup,  stew 

prebostatge,  office  of  provost 

preveiratge,  priesthood 

putatge,  prostitution 

ramatge,  branches 

ribatge,  shore 

terratge,  land,  domain 

teulatge,^  right  of  setting  up  a 
booth  ( ?) 

tutoratge,  guardianship 

vasalatge,  vassalage 

vilatge,  village 

vilanatge,  coarseness 

vizatge,  aspect,  face 

volatge,^\  pleasure,  will 

1  Double  suffixes  ? 

2  For  paratge  with  another  meaning,  see  list  3. 

3  There  is  also  a  word  teulat,  a  roof,  from  teule,  tile,  with  which 
teulatge  must  be  connected.  Teulatge  seems  to  mean  "the  right  of  putting 
up  some  kind  of  a  shelter." 

fOf  probable  Lat.  origin  are  gramatge,  sophist,  from  grammaticus, 
and  mainatge,  household,  from  mansionaticum  (?).     Cf.  the  Fr.  tnenage. 


papon,  grandfather 

par,  equal 
paren{t),  relation 

parofian,  parishioner 
patron,  patron,  model 
pel,  hair 
pelegrin,  pilgrim 
persona,  person 
piucela,  virgin 
poder,  power 
pont,  bridge 

porta,  gate 
pot,  pot 

prebost,  provost 
preveire,  priest 
puta,  prostitute 
ra7n,  branch 
riba,  bank 
terra,  land 
teule,  tile 

tutor,  guardian 
vasal,  vassal 
Vila,  village 
vila7i,  villager 
vis,  face 
vol,  will 


160  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

As  in  the  case  of  the  suffix  -ARIA,  -ATGE  is  generally 
found  added  to  nouns;  but  some  words  in  -ATGE  exist 
whose  stem  appears  to  have  been  a  verb,  as  there  is  no 
noun  on  which  they  could  have  been  formed.  This  class 
of  words  is  not  large;  but  there  is  another  list  of  words 
ending  in  -ATGE,  whose  stem,  whether  noun  or  adjec- 
tive or  verb  is  not  so  clear,  as,  for  example,  conselhatge  from 
conselh  or  the  stem  of  conselhar  plus  -ATGE  ( ?) ,  mezuratge 
from  mezura  or  the  stem  of  mezurar  plus  -ATGE  (?). 
There  are  many  of  these  words,  and  it  seems  probable 
that  the  -ATGE,  as  in  the  preceding  list,  Avas  added  to 
the  noun  in  most  cases,  and  that  the  proximity  of  the 
verb,  in  some  cases  in  more  common  use  than  the 
noun,  was  the  cause  of  the  purely  verbal  formations,  as 
arigolatge,^  etc. 

2.  The  intermediate  list,  containing  the  words  whose 
stem  may  have  been  a  verb  or  a  noun,  follows: 

agradatge,  act  of  pleasing  agrat  or  agradar,  pleasure;  please 

aigatge,  watering  aiga  or  aigar,  water 

ajudatge,  subsidy  ajuda  or  ajudar,  aid 

albergaige,  lodging  a'berc  or  albergar,  lodging;  lodge 

alegratge,-  rejoicing  alegre  or  alegrar,  joyous;  rejoice 

antatge,  shame  anta  or  antar,  shame 

barraige,  underlining  barra  or  barrar,  bar 

conselhatge,  term  of  councilorship  conselh  or  conselhar,  counsel 

costatge,  cost  costa  or  costar,  cost 

demoratge,  sojourn  demor  or  demorar,  sojourn 

destinatge,  destiny  destin     or      destinar,     destiny; 

destine 

devinatge,  chatter  devin  or  devinar,  diviner;   divine 

drechuratge,  rent,  duty  drechura  or  drechurar,  right 

encombratge,  encumbrance  encombre  or  encombrar,  obstacle; 

encumber 

'  These  verb-formations  may  at  first  have  had  the  meaning  of  office 
or  position,  as  in  gardejalge  below  (p.  163),  but  soon,  following  the 
example  of  other  verb-formations,  contracted  abstract  force. 

2  See  also  words  formed  on  adjectives,  p.  164. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


161 


eretatge,  inheritance 

estacatge,  tax  for  building  milldam 

estranhatge,^  estrangement 

fermatge,^  closure 

gazanhatge,  gain,  profit 

guizatge,  guiding,  safe-conduct 

laboratge,  plowing,  plowable  field 

limatge,  filings 

linhatge,  lineage;  alignment 

mandatge,  command;  tax  paid  to 
bakers  by  their  customers  for 
warning  to  have  bread  ready 
for  baking. 

maridatge,  marriage 

mezuratge,  measuring 

monedatge,  coinage 

obratge,  work 

oliatge,  oiling^  ( ?) 

onratge,  honor 

ostalatge,  lodging 

ostatge,  lodging;  rent;  pledge 

paisatge,  pasture,  pasture-land 

palhatge,  tax  on  straw 

pasturatge,  pasturage 
polveratge,  kind  of  toll 

portatge,   bearing;    tax   paid   by 

prisoner  to  jailer 
preizonatge,  prison;    tax  paid  by 

prisoners 
renhatge,  reign 
testimoniatge,  testimony 

trespasatge,  passage  through 

uzatge,  usagef 


eret  or  eretar,  heir;  inherit 
estaca  or  estacar,  stake ;  fasten 
estranh    or    estranhar,    strange; 

estrange 
ferm  or  fermar,  firm ;  fasten 
gazanh  or  gazanhar,  gain 
guiza  or  guizar,  guide 
labor  or  laborar,  labor;  plow 
lima  or  limar,  file 
linha  or  linhar,  Une;  align 
manda  or  mandar,  order 


wan'i or wandar, husband;  marry 

mezura  or  mezurar,  measure 

moneda  or  monedar,  coin 

obra  or  obrar,  work 

oli  or  oliar,  oil 

onra  or  onrar,  honor 

ostal  or  ostalar,  lodging;  lodge 

oste  or  ostar,  host 

pais  or  paiser,  pasture 

palha  or  palhar,  straw;  cover 
with  straw 

pastura  or  pasturar,  pasture 

polvera  or  polverar,  powder;  pul- 
verize 

port  or  portar,  bearing;  bear 

preizon  or  preizonar,  prison ; 
imprison 

renh  or  renhar,  reign 

testimoni  or  testimoniar,  testi- 
mony; testify 

trespas  or  trespasar,  pass,  or  pas- 
sage through 

us  or  uzar,  use 


»  See  also  words  formed  on  adjectives,  p.  164. 
2  The  meaning  is  very  uncertain  here. 


t  The  chief  difference  between  the  words  in  the  two  above  fists  is  that 
in  the  second  one  most  of  the  words  are  purely  abstract  in  force.     Those 


162 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


3.  The  next  list  contains  all  the  words  with  only  a 
verb  at  their  base,  almost  all  of  them  being  purely  ab- 
stract in  meaning: 


abeuratge,  wetting 
aferratge,  plowed  land 


alumenatge,  illuminating 

aratge  (this  word  appears  to  be 
used  only  in  the  combinations 
anar  aratge,^  where  it  has 
two  meanings:  [1]  "to  wander 
about";  [2]  "to  despair,"  "be 
beside  oneself."  It  appears  to 
represent  a  Latin  erraticum,  or 
to  be  formed  on  the  Provengal 
verb  errar,  wath  the  not  im- 
usual  change  of  e  to  a  before  r  in 
the  initial  syllable). - 

arigolatge,  gluttony 

beuraige,  beverage 

companatge,  nourishment 

corratatge,  broker's  business 


damnatge,  damage 
damnejatge,  damage  (?) 
dedaratge,  declaration 


abeure,  wet,  soak 

aferrar  is  not  found,  but  prob- 
ably existed,  otherwise  this 
word  would  be  a  parasyn- 
theton  formed  on  fer.  See 
Du  Cange's  aferagium. 

alumenar,  illuminate 


arigolar,^  satiate 

beure,  drink 

companar,  support,  nourish 

the  only  verb  here,  as  also  for 
corratadura,  corratier,  appears 
to  be  corratejar,  deal  in 
horses 

damnar,  condemn,  damn 

damnejar,  injure 

declarar,  declare 


that  are  not  (Jimatge,  estacatge,  etc.)  are  undoubtedly  noun-formations. 
The  abstract  words  appear  to  be  formed  on  verb-stems,  with  .some  such 
word  as  drechuratge  or  eretatge,  which  have  an  approach  to  abstract  force 
in  their  meanings,  and  a  possible  noun  or  verb  at  the  base,  as  a  probable 
starting-point. 

»  Levy,  I,  78. 

2  Grandgent,   art.   44,   sec.   5.     The    phrase  occurs  in  Bertran    de 
Born. 


'  Arrigolar  is  a  Gascon  form  of  rigolar.     See  Stichel,  15. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


163 


engrunatge,  tax  in  beans 


estatge,  extent,  space;  abode 
gardejatge,'  office  of  field-watch 
intratge,  entry,  entrance 
jairatge,  right  of  lodging  (?)  or 

tax  on  this  right  (  ?) 
logatge,  letting,  lease 
muzatge,  vain  waiting 
paratge,  adornment 
pariatge,  contract  of  partnership 
pascairatge,  grazing,  pasturage 
pasturgatge,  pasturage 
pavaige,  road-rate,  toll 
pazimentatge,  pavement 
pilhatge,  pillage 


(the  only  verb  to  be  found  is 
engrunar,  with  the  meaning 
"to  break  to  pieces."  The 
word,  however,,  has  the  kind 
of  meaning  which  is  usual  in 
noun-formations.  The  only 
noun  to  be  found  here  is  grun, 
grain  (see  grunada),  which 
would  account  for  the  verb 
engrunar,  to  break  to  bits,  or 
grains.  Engrunatge,  appears 
to  be  a  formation  on  the  word 
grun  by  the  simultaneous  ad- 
dition of  the  prefix  EN-  and 
the  suffix -ATGE.i  DuCange 
has  cngrunagium) . 

estar,  be,  stay 

gardejar,  watch,  guard  (fields) 

intrar,  enter 

jaire  for  jazer  ?  as  inversely  fazer 
for  Jaire  f 

logar,  let 

muzar,  wait  in  vain 

parar,  adorn 

pariar,  possess  in  common 

pascairar,  graze 

pasturgar,  graze;  make  graze 

pavar,  pave 

pazimentar,  pave 

pilhar,  steal 


In  the  same  way  that  -ATGE  appears  to  be  added 
to  verbs  in  -ar  to  form  abstracts,  -I(T)GE  is  added  to 
other  verbs.^     Thus  we  find: 


1  See  parasyntheta,  p.  528. 

-  Given  in  Levy  as  gardiatge.     For  comment,  see  p.  160,  above,  n.  1. 

3  To  resemble  the  other  verbal  suffixes,  we  should  expect  -ETGE 
to  be  added  to  verbs  in  -er  or  -re,  and  -ITGE  to  verbs  in  -ir.  The 
existence  of  -ETGE  as  a  suffix  is  doubtful,  however,  as  estrechege  is 
far  from  certain,  and  one  of  the  texts  gives  femenige  instead  of  femenege. 
-ITGE  was  added  to  a  verb  in  -ir  in  glapitge,  but  to  one  of  another  con- 
jugation in  batige,  and  is  the  only  certain  suffix  formed  by  analogy  to 
-ATGE  that  is  found. 


164  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

batige,  palpitation  of  the  heart  batre,  beat 

glapitge,  insult;  reprimand  glapir  does  not  appear  to  be 

found  in  Provencal,  but  prob- 
ably existed.  Compare  the 
French  glapir,  to  scream  or 
squeak.  -ITGE  is  a  purely- 
analogical  formation. 1 

Several  words  in  -ETGE  also  arc  found,  though  their 
formation  is  different  from  those  in  -ITGE.  They  \\\\\ 
he  taken  up  individually: 

asetge,  siege:  Appears  to  be  a  post- verbal  substantive 
from  a  verb  asetjar,  to  besiege. 

estrechege,  narrowness:   From  estrech,  narrow. 

femenege,  female  heat,  comes  from  femena,  woman. 
The  meaning  of  the  suffix  here  is  very  difficult  to  account 
for,  being  unlike  any  of  the  meanings  of  -ATGE.  (Levy 
gives  the  word  as  ending  in  -ITGE.) 

4.  Besides  the  formations  on  nouns  and  on  verbs,  there 
are  several  words  ending  with  -ATGE,  in  which  the  stem 
of  the  words  is  neither  of  these.  In  dealing  with  the 
words  whose  source  could  have  been  a  noun  (or  adjective) 
or  verb-  the  words  alegratge,  estranhatge,  and  fermatge 
were  mentioned.  These  may  have  been  verbal  forma- 
tions; but  at  least  the}^  give  a  starting-point  for  new 
purel}^  adjectival  ones: 


ermatge,  desert 

errn,  deserted 

enfnntilhatge,  childishness 

enfantil,  childish 

mortalatge,  legacy 

mortal,  in  danger  of  death 

nesciatge,  ignorance 

nesci,  ignorant 

primatge,  right  of  a  near 

relative 

prim,  first 

to  an  estate 

vilatge,  dirt,  coarseness 

vil,  xile 

5.    Several    words 

also 

appear    to    be    formec 

prepositions : 

darreiratge,  arrears 

darreire,  behind 

oltratge,  outrage 

olira,  beyond 

»Cf.  notes,  p.  163. 

2  See  list  2. 

on 


Formation  of  Nouns  165 

This  last  word,  however,  is  in  most  of  the  other  Ro- 
mance languages.  It  may  equally  well  come  from 
*ultragium. 

-AUT 

There  are  several  words  in  Provencal  ending  in  -AUT, 
most  of  which  seem  to  represent  a  Germanic  -ALD  in 
their  suffixes.  They  seem  also  to  have  the  suffix  joined 
to  Germanic  stems.  The  words  are:  argaut,  smock- 
frock;  armaut,  enamel;  harrufaut,  huckster;  borsaut, 
large  pocket  (?);  far-aut,  herald;  gorhaut,  mill-wheel; 
marpaut,  rogue;  pipaut,  rascal,  vagabond;  sabaiit,  push. 
Few  of  these  can  be  Provencal  formations. 

-azo(n),  -ezo(n),  -izo(n) 

The  Provencal  suffixes  -AZO(N),  -EZO(N),  -IZO(N), 
represent  the  regular  development  of  the  Latin  suffix 
-TIONE,  in  conjunction  with  the  characteristic  vowel  of 
each  conjugation.  This  suffix,  then,  was  added  to  verb- 
stems  to  form  abstracts  and  seems  always  to  have  this 
meaning.  One  or  two  words  apparently  have  the  meaning 
of  the  time  or  season  for  the  act  implied  in  the  verb,  but 
this  seems  to  be  only  apparent.  Thus  fregazon,  which 
Levy^  translates  by  "spawniing-time,"  is  given  under  the 
word  free  in  the  phrase  "en  temps  de  fregazos"  in  which 
phrase  the  idea  of  time  or  season  is  expressed  by  temps. 
The  word  sazon,  season,  might  give  a  possible  starting- 
point,  however,  for  this  kind  of  meaning.  The  suffix  appears 
to  be  added  to  a  noun  in  the  word  peazon,  bit  of  land. 

This  suffix,  much  used  in  Classical  Latin,-  appears  to 
have  been  very  common  in  the  vulgar  language  also  with 

1  III,  593.  2  According  to  Cooper,  3. 


166 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


this  abstract  force.  Thus  Ronsch  gives  ten  pages^  of 
words  ending  in  -10,  most  of  them  being  in  -TIO(NE), 
and  Cooper  adds  to  these  formations.  These  words, 
however,  are  not,  for  the  most  part,  to  be  found  in  the 
Provencal  -AZON,  -EZON,  and  -IZON.  For  besides 
these  forms,  there  is  found  in  Provengal  the  purelj'  learned 
ending  -ATIO,  -ITIO,  as  well  as  the  forms  -AGIO,  -ICIO, 
-ACI,  -ICI,  and  the  more  unusual  -ASION,  -ISION. 
The  suffix,  then,  had  many  developments. - 

Following  Levy,  the  above  suffixes  will  be  given  with 
the  n  at  the  end.     -AZO,  -EZO,  and  -IZO  are  also  found.^ 

Under  -AZON  are  found: 


afrontazon,  confrontation 
blasmazon,  blame,  reproach 
clapazon,  slaughter 
comensazon,  beginning 
comprazon,  purchase 
corazon,*  heart 
deliurazon,  deliverance 
desfiazon,  challenge 
donazon,  gift 

escomenjazon,  excommunica- 
tion 
esquipazon,  equipment 
fablazon,  fabrication,  fiction 

fenazon,  hay-crop 
fennazon,  treaty,  assurance 
folhazon,  lathing 


afrontar,  confront 

blasmar,  blame 

clapar,  slaughter 

comensar,  begin 

comprar,  buy 

cor,  heart 

deliurar,  deliver 

desfiar,  challenge 

donar,  give 

escomenjar,  excommunicate 

esquipar,  equip 

fabla,     story    (fablar,    not 

found  )^ 
fenar,  turn  (hay),  or  fen,  hay 
fermar,  fix,  fasten 
folhar,  cover  with  laths 


1  Pp.  69-79;   also  Goelzer,  62-78. 

2  Zeitschrift,  XXIV,  545;   and  XXV,  736,  for  semi-learned  words. 

'  Raynouard  also  gives  some  of  these  words  as  ending  in  -AZOS, 
but  most  of  them  are  corrected  in  the  last  volume. 

*  Perhaps  corationem  is  not  represented  here,  although  this  is  the 
etymon  that  Korting  (No.  2,500)  gives.  The  O.Sp.  form  was  coragon, 
pointing  to  a  *coracionem  as  source.     See  Ford,  49. 

'  Cf.,  however,  Sp.  hablar  and  Fr.  hdbler. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


167 


fregazon,  spawning 

jutjazon,  judgment 

leujazon,  bleeding 

mandazon,  message,  commission 

manjazon,  longing,  itching 

tninazon,-  a  measure 

montazon,  tax  paid  by  ships  going 

up  a  river 
pasmazon,  swoon 
peazoti,  bit  of  land 
pejorazon,  deterioration 
pesejazon,  act  of  breaking  to  pieces 
primazon,  time  of  new  moon 

repairazon,  return,  retreat 
sagrazon,t  consecration 

And  under -EZON: 

atendezon,  waiting 
batezon,  punishment 
escorrezon,  running  out,  outflow 
pendezon,  hanging 
prendezon,'\\  arrest 

And  under  -IZON: 

acolhizon,  reception,  receipt 
desfalhizon,  error,  fault 


fregar,  rub,  spawn  ( ?)^ 
jutjar,  judge 

leujar,  alleviate;  let  blood 
mandar,  command 
manjar,  eat,  devour 

montar,  go  up 

pasinar,  faint 

pe,  foot 

pejorar,  deteriorate 

pesejar,  break  to  pieces 

primar,  have  first  rank  ?  or  prim , 

first 
repairar,  draw  back 
sagrar,  consecrate 


atendre,  wait 
batre,  beat 
escorre,  flow 
pendre,  hang 
prendre,  take,  aiTest 


acolhir,  receive 
desfalhir,  fail 


1  There  is  no  example  in  which  it  is  certain  that  fregar  means  "to 
spawn,"  but  compare  the  meaning  of  the  Fr.  frayer<  Lat.  fricare,  which 
Ukewise  gave  fregar.  As  for  the  meaning  of  fregazon,  Levy  translates 
it  by  "spawning-time,"  but  it  is  clear  that  it  is  the  whole  phrase  en 
temps  de  fregazos  that  should  be  so  translated. 

2  A  Lat.  minatio  is  found,  but  with  the  meaning  of  "threatening." 
There  is  also  a  Lat.  mina,  meaning  a  weight.  This  word  is  not  found  in 
Prov.,  but  probably  existed  and  was  at  the  base  of  minazon. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin,  there  are  emendazon,  coireciionK  etnendationem; 
liazon,  binding  (Kligationem) ;  liurazon,  ration  «liberationem) ;  logazon, 
rent  «locationem) ;  melhorazon,  improvement  {<meliorationem) ;  mostra- 
zon  =  {'i)  {<monstrationem) ;  mudazon,  change  (Kmutationem) ;  orazon, 
speech,  prayev  « or ationem);  pensazon,  care  (Kpensationem);  poblazon, 
peopling  {<populatio7iem);  semenazon,  sowing  (Kseminationem). 

tt  Of  Lat.  origin  is  perdezon,  ruin  (< perditionem) . 


168 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


devcdizon,  withdrawal 
eisizon,  yield,  produce 
envenizon,^  coming 

envestizon,  investiture 

establizon,  garrison,  crew 

falkizon,  lack 

fenizon,  world's  end,  life's  end 

franquizon,  freedom 

garizon,  cure,  care;  maintenance, 

provision 
garnizon,  equipment 
guerpizon,  leaving,  cession 
marrizon,  sadness,  affliction 
mentizon,  lie 
penizon,-  penitence 

pentizon,  repentance  pentir,  repent 

repentizon,  repentance  repentir,  repent 

vestizon,  clothing  vestir,  clothe 

Then  there  are  also  the  sets  of  endings  -ATIO  and 
-ITIO  and  -AGIO  and  -ICIO;  but  as  the  first  of  these 
is  wholly  learned,  and  is  to  be  found  in  such  words  as 
comendatio,  which  existed  in  Classical  Latin,  no  list  of 
these  suffixes  will  be  given.  Neither  is  -AGIO  a  phonetic 
development  of  -A-TIONE,  but  a  Latinized  form  of  the 
regular  phonetic  form  -AZON.^  There  are  a  number 
of  words  ^ith  this  ending: 


deveslir,  divest 

eisir,  go  out 

(there  appears  to  be  no  verb 

envenir) 
envestir,  invest 
estahlir,  establish 
falhir,  fail,  lack 
fenir,  end 
franquir,  set  free 
garir,  cure 

garnir,  equip 
guerpir,  leave 
marrir,  sadden 
mentir,  lie 


acomparacio,  acquisition 
agregacio,  heap,  number 
disgregacio,  dispersion 
despolhacio,  spoliation 
depuracio,  purification 
engrosacio,  increase 


acomparar,  acqmre 
agregar,  aggregate 
disgregar,  disperse 
despolhar,  despoil 
depurar,  purify 
engrosar,  increase 


»  See  parasyntheta,  p.  528. 

2  There  is  no  verb  penir.  Both  penedre  and  penedir  exist,  however, 
and  the  latter  should  give  penedizo.  Can  penizo  be  a  shortened  form 
through  confusion  with  penar? 

5  It  probably  represented  often  a  school  pronunciation  of  the  form 
ATIO. 


Formation  of  Nouns  169 

penchenacio,  combing  penchenar,  comb 

radicacio,  taking  root  radicar,  take  root 

revidacio,  renascence  revidar,  re\'ive 

subtiliacio,  subtilization  subtiliar,  subtilize 

sucacio,  sucking,  absorption  sucar,  suck 

ventozacio,  cupping  ventozar,  cup 

There  are  also  a  few  words  in  -AC I  and  -ICI.  -AC I 
appears  to  be  merely  a  shortened  form  of  -ACIO  in  these 
cases : 

confirmaci,  confirmation  confirmar,  confirm 

decolaci,  beheading  decolar,  behead 

lavaci,^  t  flood  lavar,  wash 

-ICI,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  few  cases  in  which  it  i? 
found,  does  not  represent  -TIONE  at  all,  but  instead 
-ICIUM.     Thus: 

fortalici,^  fortress  (also  fortalesa) 

{<fortal)<fort 
laironici,^  theft 
mortalici,  death,  funeral 
ortalici,]]  vegetables 

-ASION  and  -ISION  are  also  found.     -ASION  is  in: 

escandalhasion,  gauging  escandalhar,  gauge 

and -ISION  in: 

aucision,  killing  aucir,  kill 

compelision,  compelling  compelir,  compel 

iSee  Zeitschrift,  IV,  407,  and  Meyer-Lubke,  II,  589,  note. 

2  See  double  sufSxes,  p.  396,  for  this  type  of  words. 

3  From  latronicium  for  latrocinium.  See  also  under  the  suffix  -ISA, 
p.   144,  n.  t-  ■ 


t  Another  word  in  -ACI  is  estropaci.     Here  -ACI  does  not  represent 
a  suffix  at  all. 

tt  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  malefici,  enchanteTKtJialeficius. 


170  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

-ATION  is  found  in: 

mendation,  improvement  mendar,  improve 

quitation,t  receipt,  cession  quilar,  acquit,  yield 

-EDA 

The   Latin  suffix  -ETUM,   plural  -ETA,   which  was 

attached  to  names  of  plants  to  indicate  a  quantity  of  them, 

appears  to  have  left  little  trace  in  Provencal,  though  more 

frequent  in  some  of  the  other  Romance  languages.^     In 

Provencal,  on  the  contrary,  when  the  idea  of  a  group  of 

plants  is  expressed,  the  suffix  -ADA  (from  -TA,  feminine 

of  the  participial  ending  -TUS),  one  of  whose  meanings 

was  collective,  seems  to  be  generally  employed,  as  hoisada, 

joncada,  plantada,  etc.     The  only  certain  cases  of  the  use 

of  -EDA  <  -ETA  as  a  suffix  appear  to  be  in 

ulbaredn,  laburnum  grove  albar,  laburnum 

nogaireda,-  place     planted     with     noguier,  walnut  tree 
walnut  trees 

Other  possible  Provencal  formations  are: 
ferleda,'^  place  covered  with  ferule    fcrla,  ferule 
olmeda,*1i\  elm  grove  olm,  elm 

For  the  suffix  -EIA,  see  under  -ADA. 

•  As  in  Sp.,  where  both  olmeda  and  oltnedo,  as  well  as  alameda,  are 
found,  and  in  Fr.  in  such  words  as  aunaie,  fougeraie,  etc. 

2  A  Lat.  nucetutn  exists,  but  nogaireda  is  certainly  a  Prov.  forma- 
tion.    See  double  suffixes  for  suffixes  beginning  with  -AIR. 
5  Ferlada  is  also  found. 

*  Found  also  in  Sp.  as  stated  in  note  1 ,  above,  and  also  in  the  Fr. 
ormaie. 


t  And  of  Lat.  origin,  prelation,  superiority Kpraelationem,  and  2>ra- 
curation,  "cathedriiticum"< procurationem,  a  payment  to  be  delivered 
by  priests  on  the  bishop's  visit. 

ft  Words  ending  in  -EDA  of  Lat.  origin  are  oliveda  (olive  grove) 
-ColivetM,  and  pineda  (pine  grove) <pi/icto. 

A  word  ending  in  -EDA  which  does  not  come  from  the  Lat.  -ETA 
is  gaveda  (wooden  bowlXjya^a^a.  See  Essais,  215,  note  3.  Pletoneda 
is  somewhat  obscure. 


Formation  of  Nouns  171 


-EL 


All  Provencal  formations  ending  in  -EL  (and  also  some 
forms  in  -ELH  through  a  palatalization  of  the  double  I 
in  some  dialects^)  represent  the  Latin  suffix  -ELLUS,  origi- 
nally a  diminutive,  added  at  first  only  to  words  with 
certain  stems,  but  later  to  all  possible  roots.-  Many 
of  these  words,  however,  did  not  necessarily  imply  any 
diminutive  idea,  but  were  simply  used  to  designate  eve8\'- 
day  objects,  and  finally  came  to  be  used  only  with  the 
suffix,  in  which  form  they  have  passed  into  the  Romance 
languages.^  In  Provengal,  consequently,  there  is  a  moder- 
ate number  of  words  with  the  suffix  beside  which  no  simple 
word  is  to  be  found,  and  the  inference  is  that  they  were 
not  Provengal  formations.  Indeed,  most  of  these  words 
can  be  found  in  Latin,  and  as  for  the  others,  it  seems 
more  likely  that  they  were  formed  there  than  that  they 
should  have  been  formed  later  in  Provengal,  from  which 
the  simple  word  disappeared  so  quickly — especially  in  the 
cases  where  the  other  Romance  languages  have  only  the 
derived  word.  Still,  there  are  many  other  cases  in  Pro- 
vengal  in  which  the  simple  and  the  derived  word  both 
exist,  and  with  little  or  no  difference  of  meaning,  and  these 
words,  or  at  least  many  of  them,  may  have  been  Provencal 
formations.  For  example,  there  are  corbel  and  corp, 
both  meaning  ''crow";"*  laur  and  laurel,  both  meaning 
''laurel,"  and  ramel  and  ram,  both  meaning  ''branch," 
in  each  of  which  cases,  French,  for  example,  has  only  the 
derived  word  at  present,  although  Old  French  had  the 

1  Grandgent,  art.  67,  sec.  2.  =  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  592. 

3  Bonnet,  459.  This  statement  is  given  for  diminutives  in  general, 
but  is  particularly  true  of  -ELLUS.     Cf.  -ET<-ITTUS. 

*  Corbel  is  generally  used  as  an  architectural  term,  and  this  may 
have  been  derived  from  corba,  curve.  That  it  ever  means  "  crow  "  is 
uncertain. 


172  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

simple  word.^  In  these  cases,  then,  the  word  came  into 
the  Romance  languages  without  a  suffix.  Provencal, 
continuing  the  Latin  use  of  adding  -ELLUS  to  words  in 
ordinary  use  without  bringing  in  any  well-defined  diminu- 
tive force,  added  the  suffix  in  these  cases.  In  French,  the 
suffix  was  added  later,  and  its  addition  without  change 
of  meaning  brought  about  later  the  disappearance  of  the 
simple  word.  In  Spanish,  the  ordinary  words  for  crow  and 
branch  are  cuervo  and  ramo,  without  any  suffix.  Laurel, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  the  suffix.  It  seems  probable,  then, 
that  when  the  suffix  -ELLUS  was  added  in  Latin,  without 
change  of  meaning,  the  simple  word  disappeared  entirely, 
leaving  no  trace  in  the  Romance  languages.  Thus  Ave 
find  anhel,  agnello,  and  agneau  in  Romance  for  "lamb," 
but  no  trace  of  agnus,  the  original  word,  except,  in  Italian, 
the  purely  poetical  word  agno.  This  accounts  for  the  man}- 
words  found  in  Provencal  with  the  suffix  beside  which 
there  is  found  no  simple  word.  Of  course,  these  words 
might  be  Provengal  formations  beside  which  the  simple 
Provengal  word  disappeared,  but  it  hardly  seems  likely 
that  it  could  have  disappeared  so  quickly  in  so  manj^ 
cases — before  the  French  nouns  corresponding  to  the 
ProvenQal  corbel  and  ramel  had  added  the  suffix  at  all. 
Words  of  this  kind,  then,  seem  to  be  Latin  formations. 
The  suffix,  however,  continued  to  be  active  in  forming 
words  in  Provengal — in  the  formation  of  real  diminutives 
as  well  as  in  continuing  the  Latin  usage  of  being  joined  to 
common  words  without  giving  any  diminutive  force. 
We  find  -EL  added  in  Provencal  as  a  real  diminutive  in : 

alhanel,  hobby  (small  falcon)  alhan,  bird  of  prey 

almiicela,  small  hood  almusa,  amice 

1  Corp,  lor,  raim  (Mod.  Fr.  corbeau,  laurelle,  /awrter[-IER<-ARIUS]), 
and  rameau.     See  Die.  Gen.,  introduction,  p.  64,  sec.  126. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


173 


astela,   small   pike 

Worterb.,  736.) 
avocadel,  little  lawyer 
bastonel,  small  cane 
bendel,  small  band 
cabrel,  kid 

campanela,  small  bell 
corbel,^  architectural  term 
cordel,  string 

coronela,"^  agaric  (a  plant) 
cr ostein,  small  crust 
cubel,  kind  of  measure 
dardel,  javelin 
drapel,  swaddling-clothes 
escusel,^  small  shield 
/afc/eZ,"  Tableau  " 
fornel,  crucible,  pot 
forquel,  prong 
frairel,  little  brother 
garlandel,  little  garland 
girela,  windlass 
laironel,  young  robber 
leonel,  young  lion 
morsel,  bite,  piece;    lower  part  of 

face 
musel,  veil  before  the  mouth 
ortel,  small  garden 
pagel,'^  small  fish 
panel,  roll 

pastorel{a),  little  shepherd(ess) 
penonel,  little  streamer 
popel,  nipple 
portanela,^  small  door 
portela,  small  door 


(See  Etym.      asta,  pike 


avocat,  lawyer 

baston,  cane 

benda,  band 

cabra,  goat 

campana,  bell 

corba,  piece  of  curved  wood 

corda,  cord 

colona,  column 

crosta,  crust  on  bread 

cuba,  vat 

dart,  dart 

drap,  cloth 

escM^,  shield 

fabla,  fable 

/orre,  oven 

/ore,  fork 

fraire,  brother 

garlanda,  garland 

gir,  turn 

lair  on,  robber 

lean,  Uon 

mors,  bite 

7nus,  mouth  (as  well  as  snout) 

ort,  garden 

page,  page 

pan,  bread 

pastor,  shepherd 

penon,  streamer 

popa,  breast 

porta,  door 

porta,  door 


1  For  corbel  with  another  meaning,  see  p.  175,  below. 

2  Coronela  instead  of  colonela  is  due  to  dissimilation. 


See  Essais, 


274. 

3  Escusel  (instead  of  escudel)  is  due,  apparently,  to  the  O.Fr.  escucel, 
which  was  formed  on  ecu,  shield,  by  means  of  an  interpolated  sibilant. 

'  There  is  also  a  feminine  pagela,  meaning  a  measure.     Is  this  also 
connected  wdth  page? 

5  A  double  suffix  ?. 


174 


Word-Formation  in  Proven(,'al 


postel,  pillory 

prebostel,  provost's  servant 

rabanel,  small  radish 

rauzel,  small  reed 

rozela,  small  rose 

somela,  small  beast  of  burden 

tinel,  small  cask 

tropel,  small  flock 


post,  post 

prebost,  provost 

raban,  radish 

raus,  reed 

roza,  rose 

soma,  beast  of  burden 

Una,  cask 

trop,  flock 


In  some  words  with  the  ending  -EL  the  derived 
word  shows  some  modification  in  meaning,  but  actual 
diminutive  force  is  not  always  perceptible.  Such  words 
are: 


boisel,^  bushel 

bordel,  house  of  ill-fame 

borsel,  pocket;  purse 

cardonel,  goldfinch^ 

fachel,  charm 

jarbaudela  (also  jaubardela),  a 
dance 

niuscadel,  a  kind  of  pear 

palmela,  kind  of  cloth;  door- 
hinge 

panela,*  panel;  cushion  placed 
under  the  saddle 

pansel,  stomach 

pastel,  dj'er's  woad 

pontel,  prop,  support 


bois,  box,  boxwood 
borda,  house 
borsa,  purse 
cardon,  thistle 
fach,  thing 
girbaut,  vulgar  person 

muscat,  nutmeg^ 
palma,  palm 

pan,  flap,  skirt 

pansa,  belly 
pasta,^  paste 
po7it,  bridge 


Then  come  the  words  with  little  or  no  change  of  mean- 
ing, which,  nevertheless,  appear  to  be  Provencal  forma- 
tions.    Beside  all  of  these  formations  the  simple  word  still 

1  Apparently  meaning  originally  a  little  box. 

2  For  the  connection  between  the  simple  and  derived  words,  see 
cardoniera,  p.  230,  n.  2. 

'  Muscat,  too,  may  have  had  the  meaning  found  in  muscadel.  Cf . 
the  Engl,  "muscat"  and  "muscadel." 

■•  There  is  also  a  word  panela  meaning  a  wine-measure.  For  panel, 
see  preceding  list. 

^  The  plant  used  in  dyeing  was  crushed  into  a  paste. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


175 


exists,  whereas  in  most  Latin  formations  of  this  kind  it  has 
disappeared : 

caisel,  jaw 

canel,  pipe 

carcanel,  throat 

cartel,  document,  certificate 

cazela,  hut 

cintel,  girdle 

corbel,^  mill  hopper 

cotela,  coat 

fenestrel,  window 

fonsel,  bottom 

frezel,  lace,  trimmings 

gafonel,  fishhook 

gonela,  gown 

gravel,  sand,  gravel 

jupel,  petticoat 

juzel,  soup,  gravy,  dye 

lamela,  blade,  sword 

laurel,  laurel 

pezel,  pea 

platel,  plate  of  metal 

ramel,  branch 

trosel,  package 

tudel,]  reed 


cais,  cheek,  jaw 

cana,  reed 

carcan,  collar,  throat 

carta,  letter 

caza,  hut 

cinta,  ribbon 

corha,  basket 

cota,  coat 

fenestra,  window 

fans,  bottom 

fres,  lace 

gafon,  fishhook 

gona,  gown 

grava,  sand 

jup,  skirt 

jus,  juice 

lama,  plate,  blade 

laur,  laurel 

peze,  pea 

plat,  metal  plate 

ram,  branch 

tros,  package 

Germanic  root,  tuda 


1  For  corbel  with  another  meaning,  see  the  list  on  p.  173.  Possibly 
this  word  should  be  corbelh  (-ELH  =-ICLUM).  Corbel,  etc.,  is  difficult 
to  treat  because  of  the  possible  base-words  corp,  crow;  corba,  curve; 
and  corba,  basket. 


t  There  is  also  quite  a  considerable  list  of  words  in  -EL  or  -ELA, 
beside  which  no  simple  word  is  found.  These  can  hardly  be  Prov. 
formations,  and  most  of  them  are  clearly  Lat.     Such  are: 

capel  {ca.p) Kcappellus;  clavel  (nailXclavellus,  and  escudela  (bowl) 
<Cscutilla. 

bavastel  or  bagastel,  puppet,  on  the  origin  of  which  much  has  been 
■wT-itten  (Zeitschrift,  XIX,  105;  Korting,  No.  1,154,  etc.).  Keller,  in  Rom. 
Forsch.,  XXII,  162,  thinks  it  may  be  connected  with  bava,  drivel,  which 
has  already  been  seen  as  a  base-word  in  bavec. 

lendorela,  (small)  swallow,  must  have  been  formed  in  Lat..  as  the 
various  forms  in  the  other  Romance  languages  tend  to  show.  The 
simple  Prov.  word  is  ironde  {Khirundo) ,  and  the  Lat.  source  of  lendorela 
is  apparently  hirundinella.     A  rather  remarkable  metathesis  together 


176  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

On  adjectives  used  as  substantives  the  following  words 
appear  to  be  formed  by  the  addition  of  -EL: 

caudel,  a  kind  of  fritter  caut,  warm 

redondela,  roundelay  redonda,  fem.  of  redon,  round 

-ENA 

The  Provencal  suffix  -ENA,  from  a  Latin  -ENA,  the 

feminine  form  of  -ENUS,  is  seen  in  a  few  words  of  purelj' 

collective  meaning : 

carantena,  about  forty  caranla,  forty 

doizena,  about  a  dozen  dotze,  twelve 

selzena,^  about  sixteen  setze,  sixteen 


with  the  aggkitination  of  an  article  must  have  taken  place,  however,  to 
give  lendorela. 

viacarel,  mackerel,  is  obscure,  but  is  not  a  Prov.  formation.  Cf. 
Fr.  maquereau. 

manganel  or  inangonel,  machine  for  throwing  stones.  The  base- 
word  seems  to  be  the  Lat.  manganum,  sling. 

mantel,  a  shed,  from  the  Lat.  mantellum. 

martel,  hammer,  from  martellum  for  martulus. 

■morvel,  snot,  mucus.  A  simple  word  may  have  existed.  Cf.  the 
Fr.  morve  and  morveau. 

nadel,  young  duck  (  ?) ,  for  *anedel,  derived  from  anede.  The  initial 
a  has  disappeared,  and  the  e  has  become  a,  possibly  through  association 
with  nadar,  to  swim. 

palpel{a),  eyelid.  The  Lat.  source  is  palpebra  or  *palpelra.  A 
number  of  Prov.  forms  are  found,  as  palperla  and  palpera.  The  ending 
-EIRA  may  have  been  taken  for  a  suffix  and  -EL  substituted. 

pestel,  pestle,  is  from  the  Lat.  pistillum. 

pilorel,  pillory.  -EL,  -ET,  and  -IC  are  all  found,  and  the  whole 
word  is  a  puzzle.     See  piloric,  above. 

pilozela,  mouse-ear  (a  plant).  From  a  Med.  Lat.  pUoseUa,  derived 
from  pilosus,  hairy. 

pimpernela,  pimpernel,  of  obscure  origin.  There  is  a  late  Lat. 
pimpernella. 

rudela,  somersault,  seems  to  be  connected  with  rodolar  or  redolar, 
to  turn,  and  with  roda,  wheel.  In  either  case,  the  initial  vowel  changed 
to  u. 

t  Also  of  Lat.  origin,  novena,  about  nine,  or  "novena"  (an  ecclesio- 
logical  term),  from  the  Lat.  adjective  novenus,  used  substantively  in  the 
feminine  form  in  Eccl.  Lat.     See  Du  Cange,  novena. 


Formation  of  Nouns  177 

But  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  ordinal  numerals, 
which  will  be  given  under  the  adjectives,  this  seems  to  be 
about  the  only  use  of  the  sufRx.  Terrenus,  of  land,  of 
earth,  and  its  neuter  form  terrenum,  land,  formed  on  terra, 
seems  to  be  the  only  clear  example  of  the  use  of  -ENUS 
as  a  suffix  in  Latin,  and  here  the  simple  and  the  derived 
words  have  little  difference  in  meaning.  A  similar 
formation  for  which  this  word  seems  to  be  the  model  is 
seen  in  the  Provencal 

gravena,  sand  beach  grava,  sand  beach 

only  here  it  seems  to  be  the  feminine,  or  perhaps  the  neuter 
plural  form  that  is  used;  if  the  feminine,  probably  because 
the  suffix  -ENA  was  added  to  a  feminine  noun  without 
passing  through  any  intermediate  stage  as  adjective,  as 
did  terrenum,  the  suffix  -EN,  -ENA  now  being  regarded  as 
a  suffix  used  m  forming  nouns. '^  The  Romance  formations 
in  the  other  languages  are  feminine,  and  it  is  this  suffix, 
detached  from  these  nouns,  that  is  added  to  adjectives  of 
number  to  form  collectives  (as  in  the  list  on  p.  176), 
perhaps  because  there  is  a  kind  of  collective  force  in  most 
of  these  words,  or  perhaps  through  the  use  of  the  suffix 
-EN  in  the  ordinal  numerals.- 

One  other  word  showing  the  ending  -ena  is  felena, 
granddaughter,  beside  which  exists  a  masculine  form, 
felen.  The  enchng,  here,  however,  is  not  the  suffix  treated 
above,  and  is  probably  not  a  suffix  at  all.^ 

1  Or  because  the  word  in  -ENA  always  agreed  with  terra,  understood. 

2  The  nouns  in  -EN,  such  as  fenhen,  jazen,  ponen,  etc.,  are  simply 
participles  used  substantively,  and  will  be  found  listed  under  nouns  from 
verbs,  p.  549. 

3  Du  Cange  has  felena,  felessena,  and  fezelena,  all  of  late  date.  The 
word  seems  to  be  a  Prov.  one,  but  the  source  is  not  clear. 


178  Word-Formation  in  Proven(,'al 

-ENC 

The  commonest  use  of  the  ProveiiQal  suffix  -ENC  was 
that  of  formmg  adjectives,  under  which  heading  it  will 
again  l)e  treated,^  yet  there  are  also  some  nouns  with  this 
ending.  In  most  of  these  words,  however,  an  original 
adjective  force  is  easily  discernible,  and  they  are  formed, 
like  most  adjectives,  on  nouns.  Just  what  the  source 
of  these  endings  was  is  not  quite  clear.  It  was  long  sup- 
posed that  the  Germanic  suffix  -ING,  used  chiefly  in 
patronymics,  but  also  by  extension  to  designate  kinds  of 
coins,  was  the  source  of  all  the  words  ending  in  -ENC, 
although  in  many  cases  the  extension  of  meaning  seemed 
very  wide  indeed.  Recently,  however,  Philipon,^  argu- 
ing partly  from  the  feminine  form  of  the  adjective,  namely, 
-ENCA  instead  of  -ENGA,  which  would  be  expected,  and 
partly  from  the  non-existence  in  French  of  words  whose 
stem  is  Latin  that  have  this  suffix,  claimed  that  the  suffix 
represented  in  the  Provencal  words  of  Latin  origin  is  not 
the  Germanic  -ING,  but  a  pre-Germanic  -INCO,  which 
would  give  -ENCA  in  the  feminine.  This  much  seems 
clear:  that  words  whose  feminine  ends  in  -ENCA  would 
be  hard  to  explain  as  coming  direct  from  -ING  without 
being  influenced  by  another  suffix;  and  that  the  existence 
of  -ENC  < -ING  in  a  few  words  of  Germanic  origin  in 
French  does  not  prove  its  existence  as  a  Romance  suffix.^ 
In  Provencal,  on  the  other  hand,  -ENC  is  very  frequent  in 
words  of  Latin  origin,  and  this  is  the  suffix  which  Philipon 
explains  by  the  pre-Germanic  -INCO;  for  if  this  suffix 
were  the  Germanic  -ING,  why  is  it  not  found  in  words  of 
Romance  origin  in  French  ?* 

■  P.  306,  below.  =  Romania,  XXXV,  1. 

'  See  Romania,  XXXV,  20. 

*  The  Germanic  suffixes  being  added  also  later  to  Lat.  stems,  but 
extremely  early  Lat.  suffixes  of  limited  use  hardly  having  time  to  reach 
northern  France. 


Formation  of  Nouns  179 

The  process  seems  to  have  been  as  follows:  This  suffix 
-INCO,  giving  -ENC,  -ENCA,  was  added  to  nouns  to 
form  adjectives;  but  in  Provencal  we  find  also  some 
nouns  ending  in  -ENC  which  are,  for  the  most  part, 
only  these  adjectives  used  substantively.  There  are, 
however,  also  among  these  words  in  -ENC,  some  of  purely 
Germanic  origin  in  which  -ENC  is  not  the  pre-Germanic 
-INCO,  and  some  with  a  feminine  -ENGA  which  seem 
to  be  derived,  after  all,  from  the  Germanic  suffix  through 
becoming  associated  with  -INCO.  The  names  of  coins 
ending  in  -ENC  could  be  derived  in  either  way,  but  as 
Thomas  states^  that  the  Germanic  suffix  had  this  use,  it 
seems  more  natural  to  derive  them  from  it  than  from 
-INCO. 

The  formations  on  nouns  apparently  representing 
adjectives  used  substantively  and  formed  by  means  of 
-INCO  are: 

albenc,  white  cloth:  albe7ic  is  also  found  as  an  adjective 
meaning  whitish,  and  is  probably  derived  from  alba. 

doblenc,  a  kind  of  bread:  doblenc  is  found  also  as  an 
adjective  meaning  "double."  The  feminine  form,  doblenca, 
is  found  also  with  the  same  meaning  and  excludes  the 
derivation  from  -ING.     From  doble,  double. 

famolenc,  hungry  wretch:  This  word  seems  to  show, 
in  the  first  place,  a  substitution  of  the  suffix  -ENC  for  -EN 
or  -ENT  from  famidentus,  hungry.  Then  came  the  sub- 
stantive use  of  the  adjective. 

meitadenc,^  a  kind  of  measure  from  meitat,  half 

ordenc,  descendant;  descent  orde,  order 

pastenc,^  pasturage  -past,  food 

plaisadenc,  bushes,  hedge  plaisat,  hedge 

1  Rommiia,  XXXV,  21. 
=  See  Essais,  273. 

'  Another  word  with  the  same  meaning  is  padoenc,  found  also  as 
padoent.     Du  Cange  lists  both  padoencum  and  patuentium. 


180  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

The  last  two  words  show  Uttle  cUfference  in  meaning 
from  the  simple  nouns  on  which  they  were  formed. 

Added  to  a  preposition,  the  same  suffix  gives 
forenc,^  foreigner  for,  out  of 

Besides  the  above  examples  of  the  use  as  substantives 
of  adjectives  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix  -INCO, 
there  are  other  nouns  denoting  coins  in  which  the  suffix 
is  not  so  clear,  but  seems  to  be  either  the  Germanic  suffix 
-ING,  which  had  this  use,  or  at  least  shows  the  influence 
of  this  suffix  on  -INCO  joined  to  words  of  which  some  are 
of  Latin  origin.  Words  of  this  kind  are :  aigonenc,  arnau- 
denc,  caorcenc,  guilhahnenc,  otonenc,  quiniinenc,  raimon- 
denc.^ 

A  similar  kind  of  derivation  is  in  anfozenc,  meaning,  not 
a  coin  made  by  a  person,  but  his  followers,  derived  from 
Anfos,  (Alphonse),  also  loherenc,  from  Lohicr.^ 

A  word  of  apparently  purely  Germanic  origin  is  belenc, 

rock,  probably  from  the  same  source  as  the  Italian  bilenco.* 

The  feminine  form  -ENCA  also  is  found  in: 

magenca,  tax  to  be  paid  in  May        mag,  May 
mostarenca,^  measure  for  wine  most,  must 

These  words   are    both    apparently   adjectives    used   as 

nouns. 

■  The  formation  of  this  word  may  have  been  partly  due  to  analogy 
with  a  *probenc  (Kpropinquus),  which  may  be  seen  in  the  parasynthetic 
verb  aprobencar. 

2  For  these  words,  many  of  which  are  not  in  the  dictionaries,  see 
Romania,  XXXV,  21. 

s  Essais',  237. 

*  Other  more  obscure  words  are  gavenc,  plowshare,  and  escodenc, 
outer  bark  of  a  tree.     Cf.  with  escodat. 

s  See  also  double  suflBxes,  p.  403.  Mostarenca  may  be  compared  with 
cazarenc  and  causer enc,  given  below  under  the  adjective  suffix  -ENC. 
This  suffix,  like  -lA,  -AL,  -ADA,  etc.,  seems  to  have  been  sometimes 
joined  to  forms  of  -ARIUS  (here  represented  by  -AR  and  -ER),  making  a 
compound  suffix. 


Formation  of  Nouns  181 


-ERNA 


-ERNA  is  found  in  several  words  in  Provencal,  and  may, 
perhaps,  be  treated  as  a  suffix,  although  there  are  no  certain 
examples  of  its  being  added  to  a  Provengal  word  already 
existing,  to  modify  its  meaning.  It  seems  to  have  been 
detached  from  the  few  Latin  words  in  which  it  existed,  to 
form  a  few  new  Provengal  words,  although  this  is  not 
certain.  For  example,  of  the  Latin  words,  lucerna  has 
become  luzerna,  and  quaterna  (quatuor)  seems  to  have 
become  cazerna,  barracks  (originally  for  four),  but  in  the 
one  example  in  which  it  appears  its  meaning  is  very  doubt- 
ful.^ Another  word,  given  by  Appel,-  is  soberna,  which 
he  translates  by  high  water,  flood.  This  seems  to  repre- 
sent also  a  Latin  adjective,  swpernus,  high.f 

Other  Provengal  words  with  this  ending  are: 

buerna  {hulerna,  bolerna,  buzerna), 

frost  ( ?) 
falterna,  ( ?) 

galerna,  northwest  wind 
loberna,  skin  of  the  lynx 

All  of  these  words  are  more  or  less  obscure  in  origin. 
Buerna,  indeed,  seems  hopelessly  obscure,  although,  as  the 
ending  -ERNA  occurs  in  all  of  its  forms,  it  seems  probable 
that  we  have  to  do  with  the  suffix.^  The  next  word, 
falterna,  is  also  very  puzzling.  Levy  gives  no  transla- 
tion for  it,  but  refers  to  the  Modern  Provengal  fauterno, 

1  Levy,  I,  237.  The  Fr.  caserne  seems  to  have  come  from  this 
word,  and  the  meaning  of  barracks  fits  as  well  as  anything  else  suggested 
for  the  meaning. 

2  Vocabulary. 

3  The  stem  may  possibly  be  the  one  found  in  the  Fr.  broiiee  and 
brouillard,  which  are  of  Germanic  origin,  although  the  disappearance  of 
the  r  would  be  hard  to  explain.  See  Korting,  No.  1,589,  also  No.  7,492 
(pruina). 


t  Still  another  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  lanterna,  lantern. 


182  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

meaning  a  dazzling,  dimness  of  sight,  a  flickering  light; 
a  phantom;  and  a  frivolous  person.  In  the  passage 
quoted,  the  last  is  the  only  one  of  these  meanings  possible, 
but  the  word  here  seems  rather  to  mean  immodesty  or 
shamelessness.  If  the  word  is  a  Provengal  formation, 
the  only  word  on  which  it  could  be  based  is  falta,  a  fault 
or  lack.  It  seems  possible,  however,  to  derive  all  of 
Mistral's  meanings  from  this  word,  and  \i  falterna  means 
immodesty,  this  meaning  is  acquired  simply  by  using 
a  concrete  noun  (frivolous  person)  with  abstract  force. 
There  is  another  falterna,  of  Latin  origin,  which  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  word  just  discussed.^ 

Galerna  seems  to  be  a  formation  by  means  of  -ERNA 
on  the  stem  found  in  the  English  "gale."^ 

Loberna?  is  formed  on  loha,  wolf,  unless  there  may  be  a 
Latin  Hupernus. 

-ES 

The  Provencal  ending  -ES  in  its  ordinary  uses  seems 
to  represent  the  Vulgar  Latin  -ESIS  and  the  Classic  Latin 
-ENSIS,  and  consequently  gives  little  difficulty  as  to 
meaning.  It  was  originally  attached  to  nouns  of  place  to 
designate  their  inhabitants: 

borgues,  horges,  inhabitant  of  a       horc,  citadel  ( ?) 
stronghold 

Carcases,  inhabitant  of  Carcas- 
sonne 

Dairies,  Dane 

Espanes,  Spaniard  Espana  (  ?),  Spain 

Frances,  Frenchman  Fransa,  France 

Genoes,  inhabitant  of  Genoa  Genoa  ( ?),  Genoa 

marques,  marquis  marca,  march 

1  This  is  a  word  meaning  "aristolochia,"  a  plant.  See  Nouv.  Ess., 
267,  and  271,  note  1. 

2  See  Die.  Gen.,  galerne.  '  See  Melanges,  102. 


FOEMATION    OF    NoUNS  183 

and  is  found  attached  to  a  preposition  in 
fores,^  foreigner  for,  out  of 

All  of  these  words  are  simply  adjectives  used  sub- 
stantively, and  many  of  them  are  found  in  Provengal  as 
adjectives  also.  Another  use  of  the  suffix  was  to  make  it 
designate  things — particularly  coins — as  well  as  persons 
from  the  place  indicated  by  the  simple  noun: 

Alavesa  (for  lansa  alavesa),  lance 

made  in  Alava 
guianes,  coin  of  the  duke  of  Guy- 

enne 
paves,  large  shield  Pavia,  Pa  via 

tomes,  coin  of  Tours 

These  words  are  all,  then,  simply  adjectives  used 
substantively.  In  a  few  other  words,  however,  the  suffix 
seems  to  be  somewhat  more  freely  used,  without  any 
clearly  defined  meaning: 

cozines,     a    person    preferred    as  cozin,  relative 

companion 

jaques,  a  garment  or  weapon  ( ?)  jaca,  shirt  of  mail 

mares,  shore  mar,  sea 

plages,  quarrelsome  person;    law-  plag,  lawsuit 

yer 

the  suffix  in  the  last  word  seeming  to  denote  the  agent; 
but  these  words,  again,  may  originally  have  been  used  as 
adjectives. t 

Now,  besides  the  words  in  -ES,  coming  from  -ENSIS, 
there  are  also  some  words  whose  meaning  is  abstract,  and 
whose  source,  therefore,  can  hardly  be  this  adjective 
suffix.     -ITIUM   would    be   phonetically   possible   as   a 

»  A  Lat.  forensis  is  found,  but  with  a  different  meaning. 


t  Two  other  words  ending  in  -ES,  but  hardly  to  be  derived  from 
-ENSIS,  are  comes,  commissioner  « Lat.  commissus),  and  compes, 
land-register. 


184  WOKD-FORMATION    IN'    PR()VEN(,'AL 

source  for  -ES,  as  -ITIA  was  tlie  source  for  -EZA,  the 
consonant  becoming  unvoiced  at  the  end  of  a  word. 
-ICIUM  would  be  also  possible  phonetically  (beside 
-ICIA,  giving  -ESA),  as  in  cabes  (cahetz),  from  capicium. 
Thus  it  is  hard  to  be  certain  as  to  the  source  of  the  few 
abstracts  we  find  ending  in  -ES.  -ITIUM,  however, 
seems  perhaps  the  more  probable,  as  being  the  neuter 
form  of  a  regular  abstract  suffix  -ITIA,  whereas  -ICIUJM 
as  an  abstract  suffix  would  be  reached  through  -ICIA, 
which  in  turn  received  its  abstract  force  through  a  con- 
fusion with  -ITIA.  Of  course,  -ICIUM  is  found  in  Latin 
in  the  abstract  judicium,  but  it  seems  never  to  have  been 
really  used  as  a  suffix,  such  words  having  only  a  learned 
development.^  The  same,  however,  is  also  true  of  the 
Latin  words  in  -ITIUM,  so  that  the  source  of  the  abstracts 
in  -ES  is  difficult  to  settle.  In  any  case,  however,  the  i 
developed  as  a  short  i,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  suppose, 
as  seems  essential  for  French,  any  substitution  of  -ITIA 
for  -ITIA.  No  case  of  an  abstract  noun  formed  in  Pro- 
vencal and  ending  in  -IS  or  -IZA  is  to  be  found.  In 
-ES,  however,  we  find  the  following  abstracts: 

fades,  fatuity,  conceit  fat,  foolish 

laides,  base  deed  (  ?)  laid,  dirty 

nescies,  ignorance  f  tiesci,  ignorant 

and  it  is  apparently  added  to  nouns  in 

diables,-  deviltry,  devilish  words  diable,  devil 

omenes,^  homage,  vassalage  ome{n),  man 

pagezes,  boorish  conduct  pages,  peasant 

parentes,^  relationship,  relations  paren{t),  relation 

1  Thus  judicium  became  juzizi. 

^Diahlesa  is  also  found,  but  its  precise  meaning  is  not  clear. 

'  For  omenesc  and  parentesc. 


t  Also,  more  obscure,  Hpaudes,  flattery.     See  also  under  -EZA,  ]>.  195. 


Formation  of  Nouns  185 

-ESA 

One  of  the  commonest  of  the  feminine  suffixes  in 
Romance  is  that  which  comes  from  the  Greek  -laaa,  which 
gives  in  Provengal  -ESA  regularly.  Its  meanings  here 
are  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  other  Romance  languages: 
it  turned  into  feminines  the  masculine  nouns  to  which 
it  was  added.  Two  kinds  of  words  seem  to  take  the 
suffix  regularly — those  denoting  rank  of  some  kind  and 
the  names  of  animals — which  is  very  different  from  the 
use  of  the  other  common  feminine  suffix,  -TRIX,  always 
used,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  addition  to  a  verb- 
stem,  to  designate  a  woman  who  does  the  particular 
thing  denoted  by  the  verb  to  which  it  was  joined, 
whether  a  corresponding  masculine  form  existed  or  not, 
and  never,  therefore,  like  -ESA,  merely  a  feminization  of 
some  masculine  form. 

Most  of  the  words  denoting  rank  are  found  in  all  of 
the  Romance  languages,  and  seem  to  indicate  a  Latin 
origin.  Such  words  as  comtesa,  countess;  duquesa, 
duchess,  and  princesa,  princess,  can  hardly  be  treated, 
therefore,  as  Provengal  formations.  Other  words  denot- 
ing persons  are: 

deuesa,  goddess  deu,  god 

fauresa,  smith's  wife  faure,  smith 

laironesa,  female  robber  lairon,  robber 

maestresa,  mistress,  lord's  wife  maestre,  master 

majoresa,  female  ruler  major,  chief 

metgesa,  female  physician  metge,  physician 

ostesa,  hostess  oste,  host 

vestoresa,  baker's  wife  pestor,  baker 

preveiresa,  priest's  concubine  preveire,  priest 

senhoresa,  lady  senhor,  lord 

the  purely  passive  meaning  being  seen  in  fauresa,  the  wife 
of  a  man  who  does  certain  things,  rather  than  a  woman 


186  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

doing    those    things    herself.     Laironesa    and    pestoresa 

imply  more  action,  but  are  still  only  feminine  forms  of 

nouns   originally   masculine.     -ESA    can    have    both    of 

these  kinds  of  meaning. 

Names  of  animals  are  seen  in : 

elephantesa,  female  elephant  elephant,  elephant 

leonesa,  lioness  leon,  lion 

-ESC 

The  Provengal  suffix  -ESC  is  one  that  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  explain.  It  appears  to  arise  from  a  confusion 
of  the  Latin  -ISCUS,  from  the  Greek  suffix  -io-xo<i, 
with  the  Germanic  suffix  -ISK.  The  Greek  suffix, 
used  originally  as  a  diminutive,  when  it  became  common 
in  Latin  appears  to  have  been  used  simply  to  form 
adjectives,  of  which  there  are  several  examples  in  Pro- 
vencal. Then  this  adjective  suffix,  becoming  confused 
with  the  Germanic  patronymic  -ISK,  appears  to  have 
given  rise  to  another  kind  of  adjectives,  namely,  those  of 
nationality,  of  which  there  are  examples  in  most  of  the 
Romance  languages.^  But  there  are  also  nouns  with 
this  suffix,  and  these  are  somewhat  harder  to  explain. 
One  or  two  of  these  words  appear  to  be  simply  adjectives 
used  substantively,  and  it  is  probable  that  most  of  them 
are  of  this  kind.  For  example,  we  find  the  word  frairesca, 
meaning  brother's  portion,  then  inheritance,  which  looks 
like  a  substantive  made  of  the  feminine  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive originally  used.  The  meanings  of  these  nouns  seem 
to  be  of  two  kinds,  abstract  and  collective.  The  abstracts 
are  as  follows: 

fadesc,  folly  fat,  fool 

frairesca,  brother's  portion  fraire,  brother 

otnenesc,  homage  ome{n),  man 

1  See  -ESC,  under  adjective  suffixes,  p.  310,  below. 


Formation  of  Xouns  187 

parenksc,  relationship  paren{t),  relative 

privadesc,  intimacy  privat,  intimate 

ribaudesca,  ribaldry  ribaut,  ribald 

ufanesca,  ufanesc,  arrogance,  pre-  ufana,  arrogance 

sumption 

vilanesca,'\  \'illainy  vilan,  villager 

all  of  which  might  easily  be  adjectives  used  substantively. 

The  use  of  the  two  forms,  even  in  the  same  word,  as 

ufanesca   beside  ufanesc,  seems  to   point  to  an  original 

adjective  use.     These  words,  then,  were  simply  different 

forms  of  the  adjective  ufanesc,  from  which  the  nouns  with 

which  they  were  used  have  disappeared. 

Other  nouns  not  abstract  (or  collective),  but  which  were 

probably  adjectives  used  substantively,  are: 

magesca,  tax  on  right  of  selling     mag,  May 

wine  (in  May  [?]);  cf.  magenca 
marcesca,  barley  planted  in  March     martz,  March 

The  collectives  are  as  follows: 

cendresca,  ashes  cendre,  ashes 

juzevesc,  Judaism  juzieu,  Jew 
orrezesc,^  filth,  excrements 

vezinesc,\\  neighborhood  vezin,  neighbor 

1  Formed  on  orreza  instead  of  orrezeza  ?    Or  on  orreza,  the  feminine 
of  orre ? 


t  Another  word,  not  an  abstract,  but  nevertheless  nothing  but  an 
adjective  used  substantively,  is  balaresc,  ballad,  from  bal,  ball,  dance. 
The  -ar  is  inserted  probably  by  analogy  with  jogldresc. 

tt  Other  words  in -ESC (A)  are:  albuesca,  bertresca,  cavesca,  and  7naresc. 

albiiesca,  pumpkin,  is  probably  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Sp.  albudeca 
and  Port,  albudieca,  but  influenced  in  form  by  the  suffix  -ESC.  The 
Mod.  Prov.  form  is  aubieca.     See  Romania,  XXXV,  109. 

bertresca,  wooden  fastening,  is  probably  from  the  Germanic  brett  + 
-ESCA.  Cf.  the  O.Fr.  bretesche  in  its  various  forms.  See  also  Korting, 
No.  1,564. 

cavesca,  sparrow-owl  (Fr.  cheviche),  seems  to  have  the  diminutive 
suffix  -ESC  joined  to  some  stem  not  perfectly  clear,  but  is  found  again  in 
the  Mod.  Prov.  caveco,  in  which  the  other  diminutive  suffix  -ECCUS 
may  be  seen.  Caput  cannot  be  the  base-word  here.  See  chevSche  in 
Die.  Gen.  and  in  Zeitschrift,  XX,  .339.  The  same  influence  of  -ESC  on 
a  word  that  originally  ended  in  -EC,  as  was  seen  in  albuesca,  is  seen  here. 
maresc,  swampy  land  (Fr.  marais),  is  probably  of  Germanic  origin. 


188  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

but  they  are  closely  related  with  the  above  abstract 
forms.  For  instance,  in  juzevesc  and  vezinesc  it  is  hard  to 
tell  whether  or  not,  after  all,  we  have  abstract  words. 
Some  of  the  words  given  under  abstracts,  as  parentesc, 
seem  to  be  almost  collective  in  meaning,  and  the  distinc- 
tion is  not  great  in  words  of  this  kind. 

-ET,    -ETA 

-ET  (-ETA),  from  the  Latin  -ITTUS^A),  is  by  far  the 
most  important  of  all  the  diminutive  suffixes  as  regards  the 
number  of  words  which  contain  it  in  Provencal  and  also 
in  the  other  Romance  languages.  The  only  other  com- 
mon diminutive  in  Provencal  is  -EL,  from  -ELLUS,  and 
this  suffix  has  very  frequently  lost  all  diminutive  force. 
-ET,  however,  differs  from  -EL  in  that  it  almost  always  is 
a  true  diminutive,  and  also  in  that  the  simple  word  to 
which  it  was  joined  still  existed  in  the  language.  This 
would  naturally  be  the  case,  for  had  it  been  joined  with- 
out change  of  meaning,  as  was  the  case  with  -EL,  the  tend- 
ency would  be  for  the  word  in  less  common  use,  almost 
always  the  simple  word,  to  disappear.  When  there  was  a 
real  difference  in  meaning  between  the  two  words,  there 
was  room  for  both  in  the  language.  There  are  very  few 
words  in  -ET  in  Provengal,  then,  beside  which  the  simple 
word  does  not   exist.      Both  simple  and  derived  word 

I  As  to  the  source  of  -ITTUS  itself  there  is  some  question.  Horning 
(Zeitschrift,  XX,  351)  suggests  that  it  may  represent  the  Lat.  -ITUS, 
as  in  avitus,  capritus — adjectives  superadding  other  diminutive  suffixes 
(cahridet,  etc.).  These  final  suffixes  later  disappeared,  and  -ITTUS, 
whose  t  was  doubled  by  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the  other  suffix, 
took  diminutive  force.  After  the  doubling  of  the  /,  -ITUS  became 
-ITTUS,  which  form  still  exists  in  Sp.  and  Port,  (cabrito).  In  Fr.,  Prov., 
and  It.,  before  the  double  consonant,  the  i  was  shortened  (as  littera  = 
lilera).  Thus  we  find  chevrette,  cabreta,  cappretta.  Other  diminutive 
suffixes  with  a  doubled  t  are  -ATTUS  (p.  148)  and  -OTTUS  (p.  255), 
and  another  development  of  -ITTUS,  namely,  -IT  (p.  239). 


Formation  of  Nouns  189 

may,  of  course,  have  come  down  to  us  from  Latin,  or  the 
derived  one  may  have  been  formed  in  Provengal,  the 
exact  time  of  formation  always  being  difficult  to  deter- 
mine except  by  the  texts  in  which  the  derived  word 
may  be  found  in  Latin,  and  by  the  number  of  Romance 
languages  having  it  simultaneously.  At  any  rate,  the 
use  of  -ET<-ITTUS  as  a  diminutive  persisted  in  Pro- 
vengal,  as  it  still  persists  in  French.  A  peculiarity  of 
its  use  is  the  frequency  with  which  it  is  added  to 
words  previously  containing  a  suffix,  such  as  -lER,  -AS, 
etc.,  but  especially  the  former  diminutive  -EL.  Nothing 
shows  more  clearly  how  much  more  of  its  diminutive  force 
-EL  had  lost  than  -ET;  for  -ELET  is  a  very  common 
double  suffix,  probably  thought  of  as  a  single  one,  whereas 
-EL  is  never  added  to  -ET  or  to  any  other  diminutive, 
and  seldom  to  any  suffix  at  all. 

In  the  following  list  all  the  words  ending  in  -ET(A), 
"with  purely  diminutive  force,  beside  which  the  simple 
word  is  to  be  found,  will  be  placed  first,  and  the  more 
difficult  words  will  be  reserved  for  later  lists.  The  mean- 
ings will  be  given  only  when  the  diminutive  force  is  not 
perfectly  clear.  The  sign  <  is  used  in  this. list  to  mean 
"derived  from." 

agulheta<agiilha,  needle  anhelef^Kanhel,  lamp 

aigueta<aiga,  water  areneta<  arena,  shore 

albeta<alba,  dawn  aurelheta,  fritter < a urelha,  ear 

ambladureta'^<amhladura,  am-      auzelefi <auzel,  bird 

bling  pace  avelaneta<avelana,  acorn 

amigueta<ainiga,  friend  azenet<aze(n),  donkey 
amoreta,    love    affair,    flirtation      baladeta<balada,  ballad 

<amor,  love  barreta<barra,  bar 

ampoleta<ampola,  blister  barrileKbarril,  barrel 

a7ielet'<anel,  ring  bastoneKbaston,  lance 

1  See  real  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

2  See  the  compound  suffix  -ELET,  under  double  suffixes,  pp.  391-92. 


190 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


blcukt,    cornfield  or  harvest  (?) 

<blat,  grain 
boqueKboc,  buck 
bordonet  <  bordon,  verse 
borseKborsa,  purse 
bosqueKbosc,  woods 
botonet,     small     sack,     purse  < 

boton,  button,  bud 
bresolet^  <  bresol,  cradle 
brevet,    piece    of    writing  <6re/, 

brief,  warrant 
budeleKbiidel,  bowels 
bufet,  bellows  < 6a/,  blowing 
cabaseK  cabas,  basket 
cabet,  head-hole  <  cap,  head 
cabrcln<cabra,  goat 
cadeleKcadel,  young  dog 
cairelet,  small   crossbow-shaft  < 

cairel,  arrow 
caironeKcairon,  hewn  stone 
cambreta<cambra,  room 
caneKcan,  dog 
canoneKcanon,  reed 
cantoneKcanton,  corner 
capelet,'-  garland  of  flowers  for 

head  <capeZ,  hat 
carraireta,^  little  lane  <  camera, 

street 
carteta<carta,  card 
cazalet^ <cazal,  country  house 
castelef  <  castel,  castle 
caulei,  cabbage  <  caul,   cabbage 

(here  no  diminutive  force) 
celeta<cela,  cell 
centureK  Centura,  belt 


cisclet,  piercing  cry  <ciscle,  chirp- 
ing 

clerguet,  minister <cZer^MC,  clerk 

cogorleta<cogorda,*  gourd 

coguleta<co<jul,  cuckoo 

colet<col,  liill 

coleKcol,  throat,  neck 

colhonei^ <colhon,  testicle 

conhet<conh,  corner 

conquet<conca,  measure  of  grain 

cordeta<corda,  cord 

cornet <corn,  horn 

correjeta  <  coireja,  strap 

corset,  doublet  <cors,  body 

costeta<  casta,  coast 

croquet <croc,  hook 

crozeta<crotz,  cross 

culhairet,^    small    spoonfuKcu^- 
hier,  spoon 

dechet<dec{h),  property 

denairet^  <  denier,  penny 

dentelhet^  <  dentelh,  battlement 

doneta<dona,  lady 

donselet-  (a)  <  donsel{a),    lord, 
lady 

enfantet<enfan{t),  child 

enfantonei^  <enfanton,  cliild 

enferjiet  <  enfern,  hell 

enganeta,  arrow  <engana 

erbeta<erba,  grass 

escaleta,    spring    of    crossbow  < 
escala,  ladder,  staircase;  litter 

escudeKescut,  shield 

esmaget,  picture  < esmage 

espazeta  <  espaza ,  sword 


1  See  real  double  suffixes,  pp.  382-83. 

-  See  the  compound  suffix  -ELET,  under  double  suffixes,  pp.  391-92. 

3  See  the  compound  suffix  -AIRET,  under  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

*  There  was  almost  certainly  a  form  cogorla,  for  Mistral  cites  it  for 
O.Prov.,  but  it  is  in  neither  Raynouard  nor  Levy.  Mistral,  however, 
gives  several  names  of  plants  similar  in  form,  but  with  I  instead  of  d; 
for  example,  coucoureleto. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


191 


esqueleta < esquela,  bell 
esajeKesai,  test 
estableKestable,  stall 
estugeKestug,  case 
fajoleKfajol,  bean 
faiset<fais,  bundle 
faleta<fala,  market 
falseKfals,  peg 
falseKfals,  siclde 
femneta  <femna,  woman 
fenestreta< fenestra,  window 
f err  eta  <f err  a,  kind  of  weapon 
filet  <fil,  thread 
filhet{a)<filh{a),  son,  daughter 
filholet^<filhol,  godson 
floqueKfloc,  tuft 
fogaseta^  <fogasa,  kind  of  roll 
folet,  gohhn<fol,  fool 
folhet,  leaf  of  hook< folk,  leaf 
folheta<folha,  leaf 
fonieta  <fon  (t) ,  fountain 
forqueta,  clamp  <f or ca,  fork 
fra^hizeKfrachis,  a  clasp,  buckle 
fustet,  kind  of  wood< fust,  wood 
gacheta<gacha,  watch 
gafet,  tenterhook  <^o/,  hook 
gaieKgai,  jay 

gantelet,-  gauntlet  <gant,  glove 
gimbilet,    gimlet  <gimbila,  wim- 

ble^  (?) 
glcizeta<gleiza,  church 
glozeta<gloza,  gloss 
goleta,  small  canal  <gfoZa,  throat 


gorjaireta,*  gorget  <gorgiera, 

throat-piece 
goseKgos,  dog 
goteta,  small  drop ;  also  a  kind  of 

disease  <gro<a,  drop 
graneKgran,  grain 
grazalet{a)<grazal{a),  bowl 
grilheKgrilh,  cricket 
i7e<a,  islet  <^7a,  island 
jaieKjai,  jet 
joqueKjoc,  game 
joglaret  <joglar,  ' '  j  ongleur ' ' 
jupet,  short  skirt  <yMpa,  skirt 
justetKjusta,  cane 
lachugueta<lachuga,  lettuce 
lagremeta  <  lagrema,  tear 
lanseta<lansa,  lance 
lauzeta<lauza,  dish,  plate 
legueta<lega,  league 
lengueta  <  lenga,  tongue 
leonet <leo(n) ,  Uon 
letreta<letra,  letter 
liamet  <  Ham,  bond 
libret<libre,  book 
lobeKlop,  wolf 
loguet<loc,  place 
lumeKlum,  light 
lunetKluna,  round  window 
luqueKluc,  lock 
maizoneta  <  maizon,  house 
malhet,  mallet <mai/i  (no  change 

in  meaning) 
mantelet^  < mantel,  mantle 


iSee  real  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 

2  See  the  compound  suffix  -ELET,  under  double  suffixes,  pp.  391-92. 

3  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning,  though  Levy  does  not  translate  the 
word.  If  gimbila  means  wimble,  it  is  the  only  example  of  the  simple  word 
in  the  Romance  languages,  though  the  diminutive  is  found  elsewhere. 
See  Murray,  "wimble." 

«  See  the  compound  suffix  -AIRET,  under  double  suffixes,  p.  398. 

'  See  the  compound  suffix  -ELET,  under  double  suffixes,  pp.  391-92. 
The  word  is  in  Appel  and  also  in  the  little  Levy. 


192 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


marldet^  <  murUi,  hammer 

rnascta<masa,  club 

matineKmatin,  morning 

mercadairef  <  meixadier,  mer- 
chant 

violeta,  cap <moh',  mold  (?) 

moltonct  <  inolton,  sheep 

mo)icgueta<mo>tegue,  monk 

)notet^<mot,  word 

viuleKmul,  mule 

mureKmw,  wall 

musquet,  musk  <?/i«sc,  musk 

nadalet,  week  preceding  Christ- 
mas <«ada7,  Christmas 

naveta<nau,  ship 

n inela  <  nina,  girl 

oleia<ola,  jar 

olheKolh,  eye 

0  mbreta  <  o  mbra ,  shade 

ortalet* <ortal,  garden 

oseKos,  bone 

ostalel*<ostal,  hotel 

padeleta  <  padela,  stove 

pairolet  <  pairol,  kettle 

paleKpal,  stake 

paleta,  long,  flat-handled  spoon 
<pala,  shovel 

palhet,  kind  of  cloak  <paZi,  a 
kind  of  material 

panel <pan,  piece 

panseta<pansa,  belly 

paoneKpaon,  peacock 

pasereta  <  pasera,  sparrow 

paseKpas,  step 

pasloret(a)  <  pastor{a) ,  shepherd- 
Cess) 

peirela<peira,  stone 


peisoiiet*  <  peison,  fish 

peleKpel,  hair 

peleta<pel,  skin 

peliseta*<pelisa,  pelisse 

peneta<pena,  feather 

pcolhet  <  peolh,  louse 

peonet,   pa\vn<pe{z)on,  foot- 
soldier 

per,tuzel  <  perl  us,  hole 

peseta,  small  coin  <  pes,  weight 

piloleta  <  pilola,  pill 

pilotela  <  pilola,  ball 

planqueta  <  planca,  bridge 

plaseta  <  plasa,  square 

plumeta<pluma,  pen,  feather 

pogeKpog,  hill 

pojolela  <  pojol,  liill 

poleKpol,  chicken 

polvereta<polvera,  dust,  powder 

poncheK  ponch,  point 

ponhet,  sleeve  of  coat  <  pon/i,  fist 

ponselef^ <ponsel,  small  bridge 

ponleKponl,  bridge 

porcelel,*  sucking    pig  <  parcel, 
small  pig 

porlalel,'^    small     door  <  portal, 
portal 

porleta<  porta,  door 

posteta<posta,  post 

poteKpot,  pot 

presteKprest,  loan 

rabela<raba,  radish 

raineta<raina,  frog 

rameKram,  branch 

raleta<rata,  rat 

resposet,    a   verse  <  respos,   re- 
sponse 


1  See  the   compound   suffix  -ELET,   under   double   suffixes,  below 
(pp.  391-92).     The  word  is  in  Appel  and  also  in  the  little  Levy. 

2  See,  under  double  suffixes,  the  compound  suffix  -AIRET,  p.  398. 
'  Has  also  a  more  specialized  meaning. 

*  See  real  double  suffixes,  pp.  383-84. 


Formation  of  Nouns  193 

rimeta<rima,  rhyme  terreta<terra,  land 

roqueta<roca,  rock  tortreKtortre,  turtle-dove 

rozeta<roza,  rose  toset{a)<tos{a),  boy,  girl 

saqueKsac,  sack  trabiiqueKtrabuc,  machine  oi  war 

santet,  small  imp <san<,  saint  tropelei*<tropel,  flock 

solar eV-  <  solar,  story,  floor ;  room^  vaiselet  <  vaisel,  vessel 

sonef<son,  sound  veneta<vena,  vein 

taqueta<taca,  spot  vergueta<verga,  rod 

tasqueta<tasca,  pocket  vermeta<verm,  worm 

tauleta,  tablet;    also  castanet<  verseKvers,  verse 

taula,  table  vileta<vila,  villa 

tebezeta<tebeza,  lukewarmness  vilanet^ <vilan,  villager 

teleta<tela,  cloth  zuquet]<zuc,  pumpkin 

Ordinarily,  in  the  above  list,  -ETA  is  added  to  nouns 
ending  in  -a,  and  -ET  to  all  others,  -ETA  being  the  femi- 
nine form  of  the  suffix,  and  most  feminine  nouns  in  Proven- 
gal  ending  in  -a.  Amor  and  pel,  which  add  -ETA,  are  no 
exceptions,  as  they  are  feminine.  On  the  other  hand, 
however,  -ET,  the  masculine  form,  is  added  to  some  nouns 
which  both  end  in  -a  and  are  feminine.     Thus  we  find : 

borsei,  purse,  from  6orsa.  Levy  finds 

also,  however,  a  form  borseta 

centuret,  small  belt  Centura,  belt 

conquet,  measure  of  grain  conca,  measure  of  grain 

jupet,  short  coat  jupa,  skirt 

justet,  small  cane  justa,  cane 

hmet,  small  window  hma,  window 

'  See  real  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

'  For  this  meaning,  see  Du  Cange,  solarium. 

3  Also  with  the  special  meaning  of  a  kind  of  bridge. 

<  See  the  compound  suffix  -ELET.      ^  See  real  double  suffixes,  p.  385. 


t  Other  words  in  -ET  are  malnet,  pot;  martinet,  crane  or  derrick, 
and  martineta,  martin;  ynerlet,  merlon;  moquet,  candle-end;  and  nabeta, 
candied  sugar.  Of  these  words,  malnet  is  obscure.  Martinet  and  mar- 
tineta probably  both  come  from  a  Prov.  *martin(<.martinus,  martin), 
the  instrument  being  named  after  the  animal  (cf.  the  Engl,  "crane," 
Fr.  grue,  Prov.  gruat,  or  other  examples).  Merlet,  as  well  as  the  verb 
merlar,  probably  comes  from  a  Prov.  *merle  (cf.  the  It.  Merlo).  Moquet 
may  have  been  formed  on  7noc,  mucus,  and  nabeta  on  nap,  turnip;  there 
is  some  connection  in  both  cases,  but  not  a  very  obvious  one. 


194  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

A  few  words  add  the  suffix  without  change  of  meaning, 
or  any  diminutive  force  whatever.^     Thus  there  are: 

alauzeta  and  alauza,  lark 
caulet  and  caul,  cabbage 
clavelet  and  clavel,  nail 
fureta  and  fura,  female  ferret 
malhet  and  malh,  mallet 
marmet  and  marme  (or  marmre), 

marble 
mealheta  and  mealha,  half-penny 
pampet  and  pampa,  vine,  branch 
parentet  and  paren{t),  relation 
pateta  and  pata,  kerchief 
piuceleia  and  piiicela,  maiden 
popeta  and  popa,  breast 

Several  nouns  also  are  formed  on  adjectives  by  means 
of  the  suffix  -ET.  Most  of  these,  however,  appear  to  be 
the  adjective  with  the  suffix  simply  used  substantively. 

blariquet,  white  cloth  blanc,  white 

boneta,  bonnet,  cap  (originally  (from  bon,  good  (?)  This  ety- 
fine  cloth)  mology,  however,  is  more  than 

doubtful,  and  the  word  may 
be  treated  as  obscure) 

crespelet,-  fritter  crespel,  curled,  crisp 

galhardet,  a  scalloped  flag  galhart,  merry,  gay 

There  is  also  a  word  laset,  weariness,  from  las,  weary, 
but  it  seems  improbable  that  this  should  represent -ITTUS, 
which  was  never  used  in  forming  abstracts.  The  word 
is  also  spelled  lasec,  in  which  the  -EC  might  represent 
-ECCUS,  which  was  also,  however,  usually  a  diminutive. 
The  Modern  Provencal  words  given  by  Mistral  are  lassech, 
lassi,  and  lassige.^     See  also  noveleta  below. 

1  At  any  rate,  none  is  shown  in  the  translations  of  them  given  in 
the  dictionary.  It  is  hard  to  determine  in  every  case  whether  there  was 
any  diminutive  force  or  not.     Possibly  other  words  also  should  be  added. 

2  See  -ELET  under  double  suffixes,  pp.  391-92. 
3 II.  190. 


Formation  of  Nouns  195 

menudet,  small  child;    brother  in     meniit,  small 

minor  orders 
moriquet,^  kind  of  cloth 

noveleta,^  dispossession  novel,  new 

piguet,  kind  of  cloth  pic,  black  and  white 

A  few  other  words  appear  to  be  formed  on  verbs. 

Such  are: 

mosquet,  horse-net  moscar,  drive  away  flies 

najreta,  small  wound  nafrar,  wound 

piulet,'\  bird-call  piular,  scream 

-EZA 

The   Provengal   suffix   -EZA   is,    after   -AMEN    and 

-ANSA,  perhaps  the  most  usual  of  the  abstract  suffixes. 

Generally  speaking,  it  presents  little  difficulty,  as  it  is  a 

regular  phonetic  development  of  the  Latin  -ITIA,  and 

was  added  in  almost  all  cases  to  adjectives  to  form  abstract 

nouns.     There  are,   however,   several  words  containing 

-ESA  instead  of  -EZA,  and  also  several  words  in  which 

the  suffix  was  joined  to  nouns,  each  of  which  cases  will 

be  treated  separately.     -EZA  joined  to  adjectives  forms 

abstracts  in: 

adrecheza,  uprightness  adrech,  upright 

amareza,^  bitterness  amar,  bitter 

1  No  simple  word  found.  Appears  to  be  the  same  as  moresquin, 
and  probably  changed  its  suffix  on  account  of  the  analogy  of  other  words 
in  -ET  denoting  kinds  of  cloth. 

2  For  the  abstract  meaning,  see  laset,  above. 
»  Amarities  in  Lat.     See  Cooper,  49. 


t  Possibly  also  prestet,  loan,  given  with  the  real  diminutives. 

There  are  several  words  ending  in  -ET  that  are  more  or  less  obscure, 
both  in  form  and  meaning.  None  of  them  can  be  Prov.  formations.  These 
words  are:  culveta,  girdle,  band;  falveta  (obscure  in  meaning),  connected 
with /aft,  brown;  gerlei,  a  kind  of  fish;  gregueta,  necklace  (see  Du  Cange, 
greguetum) ;  grolet,  a  kind  of  dish  (cf.  Fr.  grole<.gracula  [  ?]) ;  gormet,  cabin- 
boy  (for  gormet  cf.  the  Yr.  gourmet,  from  the  Engl,  "groom");  guionet, 
small  auger  (see  guiounet  in  Mistral,  II,  111).  In  all  of  these  words  -ET 
probablj-  represents  the  suffix  -ITTUS. 


196 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


apleza,  skill 

ardideza,  boldness 

auleza,  avoleza,  baseness,  cowardice 

auteza,  height,  abundance 

avinenteza,  pleasing  conduct 

baiseza,  baseness 

baudeza,  boldness 

beleza,  beauty 

blaveza,  lividity 

breveza,  brevity 

caitiveza,  captivity 

cegueza,  blindness 

certeza,  certainty 

cobezeza,  covetousness 

cominaleza,^  community 

crualeza,  cruzeleza,  cruelty 

desleialeza,  disloyalty 

dezadrecheza,  impropriety 

dolseza,  mildness 

drecheza,  uprightness 

egaleza,  equality 

enfruneza,  insatiability 

engreseza,  anger 

escaseza,  avarice 

esperleza,  skill 

espeiseza,^  thickness 

estranheza,  shyness,  timidity 

estrecheza,  narrowness 
fadeza,  foolishness 
fadrineza,  youth 
falbeza,  paleness 
febleza,  weakness 
feloneza,  cruelty 
fereza,  horror,  fear 
fermeza,  firmness 
fineza,  purity 
fizaleza,  faithfulness 
flaqueza,  weakness 
foleza,  folly 


apte,  sldlful 

ardit,  bold 

aul,  avol,  base,  cowardly 

aut,  high 

avinen{t),  pleasing 

bas,  low 

baut,  bold 

bel,  beautiful 

blau,  blue,  bad 

breu,  brief 

caitiu,  captive 

cec,  bhnd 

cert,  certain 

cobes,  covetous 

cominal,  common 

criial,  cruzel,  cruel 

desleial,  disloyal 

dezadrech,  improper 

dols,  mild 

drech,  upright 

egal,  equal 

enfrun,  insatiable 

engres,  angry 

escars,  stingy 

espert,  skilled 

espes,  thick 

estranh,  strange 

estrech,  narrow 

fat,  foolish 

fadrin,  vagabond,  young  fellow 

falb,  pale 

feble,  feeble 

felon,  cruel 

fer,  wild,  cruel,  terrible 

ferm,  firm 

fin,  fine,  pure 

fizal,  faithful,  trustworthy 

flac,  weak 

fol,  foolish 


1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  385. 

2  There  is  also  a  verb  espeisar,  from  *spissiare.     Espeiseza  may  have 
■       "  ■         .u 


been  modified  in  form  by  this  verb. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


197 


forteza,fortaleza,^  strength;  fortress 

francaleza,^  freedom  from  taxes 

franqueza,  kindness 

fresqucza,  freshness 

frevoleza,  poverty,  shabbiness 

gentileza,  gentleness,  nobiUty 

gloteza,  gluttony 

graseza,  fatness 

greveza,  heaviness,  oppression 

grineza,^  excitement  ( ?) 

groseza,  width 

ivreza,  intoxication 

lageza,  dirt,  filth 

laseza,  weariness 

leialeza,  loyalty 

leneza,  smoothness 

leveza,  lightness 

livreza,  freedom 

longueza,  length 

lonheza,  remoteness 

madureza,  maturity 

maigreza,  thinness 

malastrugeza,^  misfortune 

menueza,  thinness 

moltaleza,^  niolteza,  abundance, 
quantity 

mondeza,  purity 

naluraleza,  fidelity 

nedeza,  nedezeza*  cleanliness,  neat- 
ness 


fort,  strong 

francal,  free,  exempt 

franc,  free,  kind 

fresc,  fresh 

frevol,  weak,  poor 

gentil,  gentle 

glot,  gluttonous 

gras,  fat 

greu,  hea\'y 

grin,  sad 

gros,  broad,  wide 

ivre,  intoxicated 

lag,  dirty 

las,  weary 

leial,  loyal 

len,  smooth 

leu,  light 

livre,  free 

lone,  long 

lonh,  far 

madur,  mature 

maigre,  thin 

malastruc,  unfortunate 

menut,  tliin 

molt,  much 

mon{de),  pure 
natural,  faithful 
net,  neat 


1  See  under  double  suffixes  the  compound  suffix  -ALEZA,  p.  396. 

2  Grineza  not  certain,  hnt  grin,  which  is  at  the  base  oigrinos,  afflicted, 
startled,  is  probably  also  the  base  here.  Gruneza  and  grimeza  are  also 
suggested  as  variant  readings. 

3  See  hybrids,  p.  580,  below. 

*  Nedezeza,  orrezeza,  and  tebezeza  seem  at  first  sight  to  display  a 
doubling  of  the  suffix  -EZA.  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  they 
come  from  such  Lat.  forms  as  *nitiditia,  *horriditia,  and  *tepiditia. 
The  forms  without  this  apparent  doubling,  as  nedeza  and  tebeza,  are  very 
probably  formations  on  the  adjectives  net  and  tebe,  although  these  might 
possibly  be  simplifications  of  the  longer  forms.  No  such  form  as  orreza 
exists.  A  word  almost  like  these,  but  with  d  instead  of  z,  is  poiredeza-C 
*putriditia. 


198 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


negreza,  blackness 

nescieza,  ignorance 

nobleza,  nobility 

noveleza,  newness;  unusual  size  or 
splendor 

nualeza,  indolence 

nudeza,  nudity 

orbeza,  blindness 

orrezeza,^  horror;  filth;  immoral- 
ity 

paubreza,  poverty 

pegiieza,  folly 

perdiirableza,'-  permanence 

petiteza,  smallness 

pleneza,  fulness 

poiredeza,^  rottenness,  putrefac- 
tion 

prenheza,  pregnancy 

preondeza,  depth 

primezn,  thinness,  smallness 

privadeza,  privacy,  familiarity 

proeza,  prowess 

pureza,  purity 

rauqueza,  hoarseness 

redoruleza,  roundness 

regeza,  stiffness 

rogeza,  redness 

rudeza,  roughness 

sadolezn,  satiety 

santeza,  sanctity 

savieza,  wisdom 

sequeza,  dryness 

soleza,  solitude 

suaveza,  gentleness 

subtileza,  subtlety 

tardeza,  slowness 

tebeza,  tebezeza,^  lukewarmness 

tendreza,  tenderness 


negre,  black 
7iesci,  ignorant 
noble,  noble 
novel,  new 

nualh,  indolent 
7iut,  nude 
orp,  blind 
orre,  horrid 

paubre,  poor 
pec,  foolish 

perdurable,  permanent 
petit,  small 
plen,  full 


prenh,  pregnant 
preon{da),  deep 
prim,  tliin,  small 
privat,  private 
pro,  valiant 
pur,  pure 
rauc,  hoarse 
redon{da),  round 
rege,  stiff 
roge,  red 
rude,  rude 
sadol,  satiated 
sunt,  saintly 
savi,  wise 
sec,  dry 
sol,  alone 
suau,  suave 
subtil,  subtle 
tart,  late 
tebe,  lukewarm 
tendre,  tender 


»  Cf.  p.  197,  n.  4. 

2  This  is  peculiar  in  being  formed  on  a  word  that  already  has  both 
suffix  and  prefix  {perdurable,  formed  on  dur),  but  it  is  a  simple  suffix- 
formation. 


Formation  of  Nouns  199 

vaneza,  boasting  van,  vain 

velheza,  old  age  velh,  old 

vermelheza,  pinkness  vermelh,  pink 

vileza,\  baseness  vil,  vile 

Besides  the  words  in  the  above  hst  representing  the 

phonetic  development  of  -ITIA,  there  are  a  few  others  in 

-ESA  or  -ESSA,  that  is,  with  the  voiceless  sound  of  s, 

and  spelled  -ESA  in  Levy.     These  words  may  be  explained 

in  various  ways.     In  no  case  should  -ITIA  have  given 

the  voiceless  s  phonetically,  and  we  must  look  elsewhere 

for  an  explanation,  which  may  perhaps  be  found  in  a 

substitution  for  -ITIA  of  -ICIA.     This  is  a  suffix  which 

hardly  appears  in  Romance  except  in  the  combination 

ARICIUS,  as  seen  in  the  Provencal  -ARES,  -AREZA,  and 

the  French  -EREZ,   -ERECE.     -ICIUS,   however,  did 

exist  in  Latin,  being  added  to  noun-stems.     In  Provengal, 

it  is  possibly  seen  in  the  word  cabes,^  cabetz,  collar,  in 

which  the  precise  meaning  introduced  by  the  suffix  is  not 

clear,  though  it  seems,  if  anything,  diminutive.     Yet  -ES 

in  some  words  has  an  ab.stract  meaning,  just  as  -ESA  has, 

and  the  question  is  how  to  account  for  them.     It  seems 

probable  that,  in  the  first  place,  -ICIA,  without  any  very 

well-defined  meaning,  became  confused,  in  some  words,  with 

-ITIA,  and  was  substituted  for  it,  which  would  account 

for  the  words  in  -ESSA,  or  -ESA,  as  in  Levy.     Bonasa 

<,bonacia  may  perhaps  have  had  some  influence  in  the 

change    of   bonitia    to    bonida>bonesa.     This    confusion 

and  substitution  of  -ICIA  for  -ITIA  probably  occurred 

rather  early,   as  the  Provengal  descendants  of  pigritia 

seem  to  indicate.     Here   Raynouard   gives,   besides   the 

"  See  p.  145,  above. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  is  dureza.  See  Olcott,  79.  Both  diiritia  and 
durities  are  found.  Ladesa,  breadth,  is  also  Lat.  See  Olcott,  79,  lalitia, 
from  latus. 


200  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

regular  pigreza  and  pigresa,  which  should  come  from  pigri- 
cia,  also  pigrida,  which  seems  to  represent  unchanged  a 
Latin  pigrida.  The  Provencal  abstracts  in  -ES  probably 
are  derived  from  -ICIUM,  which  seems  itself  to  have 
taken  the  abstract  meaning  which  the  corresponding 
feminine  form  had  received  through  a  confusion  with 
-ITIA. 

The  Provcn^'al  words  with  -ESA  instead  of  -EZA  are 
as  follows: 

alegresa,  happiness  alegre,  happy,  joyful 

bonesa,  goodness  bon,  good 

domesteguesa,  familiarity  domestic,  domestic,  familiar 

joinesa,  youth  joine,  young 

liesa,  joy.  This  cannot  represent 
directly  either  laetitia  or  Haeti- 
cia.  It  seems  to  be  a  borrow- 
ing from  the  French  liesse. 

nedesa,  neatness  net,  neat 

pigresa    (Latin),    laziness.     See       pigre 
above 

primesa,  primacy  prim,  first 

tortesa,  crookedness  tort,  crooked 

In  a  few  cases  -EZA  (and  -ESA)  are  added  to  nouns : 

aureza,  folly  aura,  air 

boiseza,^  box,  case  bois,  box 

enfanteza,  infancy  enjan{i),  infant 

frontereza,-  limit  fronteira,  limit,  boundary 

laironesa,  robbery  lairon,  robber 

The  last  word  represents  latronicia  for  latrodnia,  and 
bears  out  the  idea  of  an  abstract  meaning  for-  ICIUS. 
The  metathesis  may  have  taken  place  under  the  influence 

'  Probably,  however,  not  a  Prov.  formation.  Thomas  (.Melanges, 
34)  derives  the  word  from  pyxida,  a  Latinization  of  the  Gr.  wv^ts. 

2  For  -AREZA<-ARICIUS,  see  double  suffixes.  The  base-word 
for  frontereza  is  not  front  but  fronteira,  to  which  -AREZA  was  joined. 
Syllabic  superposition  takes  place  here,  however,  giving  frontereza.  See 
Nouv.  Ess.,  69. 


Formation  of  Nouns  201 

of  other  abstracts  in  -ICIUS.     Raj^nouard  has  only  the 
purely  learned  form  laironici. 

ligeza,  right  of  vassal  lige,  vassal 

nienteza,  nullity  nient,  nothing 

ortaleza,^  t  vegetable 

-lA 

The  Provencal  suffix  -lA,  coming  from  a  Latin  -I A, 
which  had  been  detached  from  Greek  abstract  nouns 
with  this  ending,  gives  little  difficulty  as  to  meaning,  for 
it  seems  to  have  formed  little  but  abstract  nouns,  although 
to  form  them  the  suffix  was  joined  both  to  nouns  and 
to  adjectives,  and  also,  in  a  few  cases,  to  verb-stems.  In 
words  like  baronia  and  borgezia,  the  suffix  appears  to  have 
collective  force,  but  this  was  probably  a  later  develop- 
ment of  meaning,  and  baronia  may  have  meant  "nobility" 
(abstract)  before  meaning  the  nobility  or  nobles.  The 
chief  difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  suffix  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  it  was  very  frequently  joined  to  the  suffix  -ARIUS  to 
form  a  new  compouncl  suffix  of  varied  meanings,  -AIRIA, 
or  more  usually  spelled  -ARIA,  also  joined  to  nouns,  ad- 
jectives, and  verb-stems.  In  this  suffix,  then,  originallj^ 
added  to  the  stem  of  words  ending  in  -lER,  all  idea  of  a 
compound  was  lost  very  early,  and  it  could  be  added  in- 
dependently of  any  previous  ending.    -AIRIA  (or  -ARIA-) 

1  For  this  word,  containing  a  double  suffix,  see  double  suffixes. 

2  See  -ARIA,  in  its  regular  alphabetic  position,  p.  130,  above. 

t  Another  word  apparently  having  the  suffix  -EZA  added  to  a  noun 
is  asteza,  which  Raynouard,  translating  as  "little  pike,"  derives  from 
asta,  pike.  The  word,  nevertheless,  is  obscure  in  meaning.  Still  another 
is  pageza,  farmer's  wife,  but  this  is  simply  pages,  peasant,  plus  the  feminine 
ending  a. 

Also  a  word  with  an  apparent  suffix  -EZA,  lamj)eza<himpada. 


202 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


has  therefore  been  treated  as  an  entirely  independent 
single  suffix,  and  no  Avords  with  that  ending  will  be  found 
here.  Parlaria,  for  example,  which  looks  like  parlar  plus 
-lA  at  first  sight,  has  been  treated  under  -ARIA. 

A  great  many  simple  nouns  add  -I A  to  form  abstracts : 

abadia  (?),  Raynouard's  meaning, 
foret  de  sapins,  is  wTong,  but 
the  real  meaning  is  not  clear. 
It  is  possibly  abbey,  built  on 
ahat,  abbot.  Le\y  gives  a  refer- 
ence to  Sternbeck,  but  to  an 
unpublished  part  of  his  thesis. 

bailia,  guardianship 

baronin,  nobility,  nobles 

borgezia,  "bourgeoisie" 

canongia,  canonicate 

caslania,^  castle,  defense 

clercia,-  clergy 

cogossia,  cuckoldom 

comandia,^  commandery 

companhia,  company 

conestablia,  constableship 

cridoria,^  clamor,  uproar 

degania,  deanship 

diablia,  deviltry 

drechuria,^  right,  title 

enfantia,  childishness,  folly 

escrivania,  edition,  redaction 

fantaumia,  illusion 

folia,*  folly,  abuse 

frairia,  brothersliip 

galaubia,  cheerfulness 

gardia,^  watch 

garentia,  evidence,  testimony 

garsonia,  boy's  prank 


baile,  intendant 
baron,  baron 
borges,  "bourgeois" 
canonge,  canon 
caslan,  lord  of  castle 
clerc,  clerk 
cogotz,  cuckold 
comanda,  command 
companh,  companion 
conestable,  constable 
cridor,  uproar 
degan,  dean 
diable,  de\il 
drechura,  right 
enfan{t),  child 
escrivan,  scribe 
fantauma,  phantom 
fol,  fool 
fraire,  brother 
galaubei,  pomp 
garda,  guard,  watch 
garen(t),  guaranty 
garson,  boj' 


>  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 
double  abstract  suffix. 


Observe  in  cridoria  and  drechuria  the 


2  Clerquia  instead  of  clercia  might  be  expected. 

'  For  comandia  and  gardia,  see  also  formations  on  verbs. 

*  For  folia,  see  also  formations  on  adjectives. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


203 


glezia,  clergy 

joglaria,^  trade  of  "jongleur" 

laironia,  theft 

lestia  ( ?),  right  to  raise  taxes  ( ?) 

ma(j)estria,  skill;  trick;  power 

mercantia,  merchandise 

metgia,  art  of  medicine;  remedy 

mezelia,  leprosy 

pagezia,  coarseness 

paironia,  fatherhood 

paponia,  inheritance  from  a  grand- 
father 

payania,  paganism 

peolhia,  disease  of  lice 

plaidezia,  pleading,  legal  pro- 
cedure 

preveiria,  priesthood 

ribaudia,  shamelessness 

sancnia,  bleeding 

senescalchia,  seneschalship 

senhoria,  lordship 

serventia,  service 

vigoria,  vigor 

vilania,-  j  coarseness 

There  are  four  words  also 

little  change  in  meaning: 

cairia,  corner  caire,  corner 

corsia,  passageway  (in  a  ship)  corsa,  course 

ordia,  order  orde,  order 

veiria,  pane  of  glass  veire,  glass 

1  Here,  indeed,  we  find  the  ending  -ARIA,  but  the  "  AR"  represents 
-ARIS  and  not  -ARIUS,  for  which  reason  it  is  not  given  with  the  other 
words  in  -ARIA. 

-  See  double  suffixes,  p.  385. 


gleiza,  church 
joglar,  "jongleur" 
lairon,  thief 
lesda,  leuda,  a  tax 
ma{j)estre,  master 
mercan{t),  merchant 
metge,  physician 
viezel,  leper 
pages,  peasant 
patron,  father 
papon,  grandfather 

payan,  pagan 

peolh,  louse 

plaides,  wrangler,  lawyer 

preveire,  priest 
ribaut,  ribald 
sane,  blood 
senescalc,  seneschal 
senhor,  lord 
serven{t),  servant 
vigor,  \'igor 
vilan,  peasant 

in  which  the  suffix  makes 


t  There  are  several  additional  words  ending  in  -lA  that  are  not  Prov. 
formations,  and  many  of  them  have  not  the  suffi.x  -lA  at  all.  Such 
are:  auria,  bolia,  brefania,  colonia,  crozeia,  esquilansia,  fadia,  gavia, 
rnostazia,  palaudia,  and  pezonia. 

auria,  lightness,  may  be  derived  from  aura,  air,  but  the  word  is  not  at 
all  certain. 

bolia,  strong  broth,  should  probably  be  written  bolha,  or  bulha,  and 


204  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

For  the  last  word,  in  French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  double  suffix  -ARIA  is  found 
(verrerie,  vidrieria,  vidraria)  but  with  the  meanings  of  glass- 
works and  things  made  of  glass.  The  simple  suffix  -lA 
appears  to  be  found  only  in  Provengal — another  example 
of  syllabic  superposition. 

A  few  words  have  the  meaning  of  place,  but  such 
cases  are  rare.     The  only  words  appear  to  be: 

fauria,  smithy  faure,  smith 

mongia,  monastery  monge,  monk 

prioria,'\  priory  pnor,  prior 

These  are  meanings  which  we  should  expect  to  find 
under  the  ending  -ARIA,  as,  indeed,  we  do,  finding  fahra- 
ria  meaning  a  smithy.  There  may  perhaps  have  been  a 
change  of  meaning  from  the  occupation  to  the  place  for 
the  occupation  in  these  two  words. 

Then  come  the  formation  on  adjectives,  of  which  there 
is  also  a  number  with  the  same  abstract  force : 

has  nothing  to  do,  therefore,  with  the  suSix  -lA;  it  is  even  possible 
that  -IDA  {holia  for  bolhida)  is  the  suffix  represented  here  (see  Levy, 
I,  153). 

brefania,  epiphany,  is  from  the  Lat.  epiphania. 

colonia,  fine,  is  from  the  Lat.  calumnia. 

crozeia,  window-frame,  is  in  Du  Cange.  Here  we  have  not  -lA 
but  -EIA,  which  indicates  Fr.  influence.  See  -EIA,  above,  under 
-ADA. 

esquilansia  is  a  mediaeval  deformation  of  the  Gr.  Kvvdyxv  with  the 

V  pronounced  asi.  See  Die.  Gen.,  introduction,  sec.  504.  There  seems 
to  be  also  a  prefix  ES-  in  this  word. 

fadia,  weariness  (also  written /adtj7a),  is  a  post-verbal  forniation  on 
the  verb  fadiar  or  fadigar. 

gavia,  cage,  is  from  the  Lat.  *gavea  (Fr.  cage). 

In  mostazia,  mustard,  -AZIA  represents  another  suffix. 

pnlaudia,  article  of  clothing,  is  obscure,  and 

pezonia,  peony,  is  the  Lat.  paeonia,  with  a  z  inserted  instead  of  the 

V  which  Fr.  inserts  (pivoine). 


t  To  these  might  be  added  abadia  (see  p.  202),  if  it  has  the  meaning 
of  "abbey,"  suggested  there.     Cf.  mongia  and  prioria,  above. 


Formation  of  Nouns  205 

aurania,  folly  auran,  light 

azautia,  graciousness  azaut,  gracious 

carestia,  (1)  highness  of  price;  (2)  love 

The  last-named  word  is  somewhat  puzzling,  but  the 
examples  seem  to  make  clear  the  second  meaning,  which 
is  given  by  Levy.^  The  first  meaning  is  given  by  Korting,- 
who  suggests  it  instead  of  "lack,"  mentioned  by  Ray- 
nouard.  Korting  therefore  draws  the  word  from  *caristus, 
a  superlative  of  car  us  plus  the  ending  -lA,  rather  than 
derive  it  from  *carestus,  a  past  participle  of  the  verb 
carere,  to  lack.  He  is  probably  right  in  saying  that  -lA 
would  not  be  added  to  a  past  participle  stem,  the  regular 
stem  to  which  it  is  added  being  that  of  the  infinitive. 
Moreover,  the  second  meaning,  "love,"  seems  to  connect 
the  word  with  the  adjective  cams,  whether  we  believe 
in  the  superlative  *caristus  or  not.  It  seems  possible 
enough  that  both  the  meanings  of  dearness — highness  in 
price,  and  love  =  fondness  or  dearness — could  be  derived 
from  the  adjective  cams,  dear,  just  as  caro  means  "dear" 
in  both  senses  in  Spanish  and  Italian,  and  cher  in  French 
likewise  has  both  meanings.  As  for  the  derived  word, 
carestia,  it  is  found  also  in  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Portu- 
guese, and  there,  as  in  Provengal,  serves  as  base  for  an 
adjective  formed  with  the  suffix  -OSUS. 

coindia,  graciousness  coinde,  gracious 

corlezia,  courtesy  cortes,  courteous 

culvertia,  perfidy  culvert,  perfidious 

envezadia,  witchcraft,  spell  ( ?)  envezat,  merry,  happy 

falsia,  deceit  fals,  false 

fatonia,^  cowardice  *faton,  from  fat,  foppish  ( ?) 

folia,  folly  fol,  foolish 

galhardia,  cheerfulness  galhart,  gay,  cheerful 

gelozia,  jealoiLsy  gelos,  jealous 

I  I,  213.  2  See  carestus,  No.  1,935. 

3  See  double  suffixes,  p.  385,  n.  t- 


206 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


gensozia,^  gentleness 
glotonia,^  gluttony 
guiacozid,  craft,  deceit 
janglozia,^  slander 
Icconia,^  gluttony 


(gent,  gentle) 

gloton,  gluttonous 

guiscos,  tricky 

janglos,  slanderous 

*lecon,  from  lee,  greedy;   leccone 

exists    in    Italian,     meaning 

"a  glutton" 
major,  superior 
malaut,  ill 
malvais,  bad 
manen{t),  powerful 
melhor,  better 
membrat,  prudent 
mesquin,  miserable 
moisart,  deceitful 
moison,  deceitful 
muzart,  loitering 
par,  similar 
punain,  stinking 
ricaut,  pretentious 
ricos,  proud 
truan{t),  vagrant 


majoria,  superiority 
malautia,  illness 
mnlvaizia,  badness 
manentia,  power 
melhor ia,-  advantage 
membradia,  prudence 
mesquinia,  misery 
moisardia,^  deception 
moisonia,^  trick,  deceit 
muzardia,  folly 
paria,  resemblance 
punaizia,  stench 
ricaudia,^  ostentation 
ricozia,^  pride,  insolence 
truandia,  vagrancy 

On  verb  stems,  we  find  the  following  formation : 

bauzia,  deception  bauzar,  deceive 

This  seems  to  be  the  only  certain  one,  but  several 
words  given  in  the  list  of  nouns  could  equally  well  be 
treated  as  formations  on  verb-stems.  Such  are  comandia 
and  gardia.'^ 

1  This  word  is  pecuhar.  It  is  an  abstract  and  has  the  force  of 
genseza,  which  one  of  the  manuscripts  gives  in  its  stead  (Raynouard,  III, 
462).  It  wouki  seem  to  be  built  on  an  adjective  *gensos,  from  gen(t), 
which  is  nt)t  found,  however,  and  may  not  have  existed.  Probably 
gensos,  if  it  existed,  was  due  to  a  confusion  between  the  comparative 
forms  of  gen — genseis  and  gensor. 

2  Or  possibly  formed  on  the  verb  melhorar  (  ?).  For  another  probable 
formation  on  the  comparative  of  an  adjective,  see  gensozia,  above. 

3  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  384,  385,  and  385,  n.  f. 

^  In  a  few  cases,  also,  -IA  is  apparently  added  to  the  stems  of  verbs 
in  -ir.  For  such  words,  however — carpia.  departia,  partia,  and  repentia 
— see  p.  29,  n.  f.  above. 


Formation  of  Nouns  207 

-lA  is  also  found  attached  as  a  suffix  to  several  com- 
pound nouns  to  form  abstracts,^  as  in: 

bonomia,  kindness  honome,  good  man 

prodomia,  nobility  prodome,  valiant  man 

profemnia,  womanly  virtue  profemna,  good  woman 

-lER 

The  Provencal  suffix  -lER  (also  -ER,  -EIR;  femi- 
nine -lERA,  -EIRA,  -ERA,  and  -lEIRA)  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  complicated  suffixes  in  the  language, 
both  on  accomit  of  the  variety  of  meanings  which  it  has 
in  Provengal  and  also  on  account  of  its  numerous  forms, 
none  of  which  can  be  a  regular  phonetic  development  of 
the  Latin  suffix  -ARIUS — its  obvious  source — according 
to  the  laws  of  sound-change  in  Provengal.  Much-  has 
been  written  on  the  form  of  the  suffix  in  the  Romance 
languages,  but  the  question  cannot  even  yet  be  regarded 
as  definitely  settled.  The  Provengal  forms  -ER,  -lER, 
-EIRA,  as  also  the  other  forms,  through  an  influence  of 
each  gender  on  the  other,  might  be  regularh'  derived 
from  a  form  -ERIUS,^  especially  as  the  Latin  words  with 
this  ending  have  just  the  same  forms'*  as  those  whose 
apparent  Latin   etymon  is  in  -ARIUS.     But   how   did 

'  See  hybrid  formations,  p.  580. 

2  The  two  longest  works  are:  E.  Zimmermann,  Die  Geschichte  des 
lateinischen  Suffixes  -ARIUS  in  den  romanischen  Sprachen  (reviewed  in 
Romania,  XXV,  638),  and  E.  Staaf,  Le  Suffixe  -ARIUS  dans  les  langues 
romanes  1896;  (reviewed  in  Zeitschrift,  XXI,  296,  and  in  Zeitschrift 
fiir  romanische  Sprache,  XXI,  55).  There  are  also  articles  by  Marchot 
in  Zeitschrift,  XVII,  288,  and  XIX,  61,  and  two  very  important  articles 
by  Thomas  in  the  Nouv.  Ess.,  p.  110  (also  in  Romania,  XXXI,  481),  and 
p.  119.  See  also  the  Bausteine  zur  romanischen  Philologie,  1905  (Mussafia 
Festschrift) ,  641-60. 

'  Cf.,  for  example,  such  words  as  mostier-Cmonasteriutn,  or  the 
abstract  words  given  on  p.  228. 

*  In  Provencal,  cavaleiral  is  almost  the  only  exception.  For  this 
word,  see  double  suffixes,  p.  380,  n.  2. 


208  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

-ARIUS  happen  to  change  to  -ERIUS  ?  There  seems  to 
be  no  good  reason  for  supposing  a  substitution  pure  and 
simple  of  -ERIUM,  as  the  two  endings  are  not  closely 
enough  allied  in  meaning  to  have  caused  any  confusion, 
and  as  this  neuter  -ERIUM  would  have  to  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  three  forms  -ARIUS,  -ARIA,  -ARIUM. 
A  stronger  reason,  however,  against  supposing  this  sub- 
stitution of  sufRx  is  that  in  all  the  words  originally  end- 
ing in  -ARIUS,  to  which  another  suffix  (-ET,  -ADA, 
-AL,  etc.)  was  added,  -AIR  or  -AR  is  found  represent- 
ing -ARIUS  and  practically  never  -EIR  (< -ERIUS), 
although  it  seems  utterly  improbable  that  if  such  words 
as  mercadarius  and  denarius,  for  example,  had  changed 
to  mercaderius  and  denerius  by  a  substitution  of  suffix, 
we  should  regularly  find  -AIR  or  -AR  in  their  compounds. 
A  still  better  example  of  this,  perhaps,  is  found  in  the 
two  words  bandairier  and  carrairier,  representing  banda 
+  -ARI+-ARIUS  and  carra +-ARI+-ARIUS,  in  which 
the  first  -ARIUS  has  developed  regularly  and  the  second 
irregularly,  or  as  if  from  -ERIUS.  Of  all  the  double 
suffixes  to  be  treated  later,^  we  shall  find  -ARIUS  by  far 
the  most  frequent  as  the  first  part,  to  which  the  second 
suffix  was  attached,  and  these  forms  are  -AIRADA, 
-AIRAL,  -AIRET,  -AIRIA  or  -AIROL,  -AIRON,  etc. 
-ARIUS,  therefore,  could  change  its  form  only  when  bear- 
ing the  accent. 

If  the  form  -ERIUS  does  not  arise  through  a  simple 
substitution  of  suffix,  its  evident  presence  in  words  origi- 
nally having  -ARIUS  in  Latin  must  be  explained  in  some 
other  way,  and  this  Thomas,-  who  is  one  of  the  most 
recent  to  write  on  the  subject,  explains  as  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  Germanic  suffix  -AREIS,  in  conformity 

1  Pp.  380-40.3.  =  Xoiiv.  Ess.,  123. 


Formation  of  Nouns  209 

with  which  it  has  undergone  the  law  of  the  umlaut  and 
-ARI  has  become  -ER.  First  undergoing  a  change  in 
in  the  mouths  of  the  Franks  in  Gaul,  it  was  finally  taken 
up  by  the  Gauls  themselves;  and  -ARIUS  having  once 
become  -ERIUS,  it  would  have  the  same  treatment  as 
the  Latin  e.  The  earliest  forms  seem  to  be  found  in  the 
masculine  -ER  and  -EIR,  with  -EIRA  regularly  in  the 
feminine.  -EIR  may  have  been  the  original  masculine 
form,  which  later  lost  the  i,  whereas  the  feminine  re- 
tained it,  or,  according  to  a  suggestion  which  Thomas 
credits  to  Vising,^  -ARIU  did  not  become  -ERIU  but 
-ER — that  is,  the  umlauting  took  place  at  the  expense 
of  the  i  of  the  following  syllable.  The  first  rule,  however, 
would  explain  all  the  forms  just  mentioned,  and  as  for 
the  forms  -lER  and  -I EIRA,  they  are  accounted  for  by 
a  later  breaking  of  the  e  under  the  influence  of  a  follow- 
ing palatal  element.-  The  only  form  remaining  to  be 
explained  is  -lERA,  which  might  certainly  be  due  to  the 
analogy  of  the  masculine  form  -lER. 

Coming  now  to  the  uses  of  the  suffix  -lER  in  Proven- 
gal,  we  find  it,  when  representing  the  Latin  -ARIUS,  used 
to  denote  the  agent  who  performs  an  action,  and  joined 
regularly  to  nouns;  -lER  representing  the  neuter -ARIUM, 
denoting  place  or  instrument,  or  used  collectively;  -I ERA, 
the  feminine  form,  not  differing  greatly  from  the  uses 
of  the  neuter;  and  still  another  -lER,  with  none  of  these 
meanings,  but  abstract  force,  not  representing  -ARIUS, 
however,  but  -ERIUM. 

Although  the  suffix  has  many  forms,  as  it  has  been 
necessary  to  choose  one  under  which  to  arrange  the 
words  containing  it,  the  form  -lER,  as  being  beyond 
comparison  the  most  common,  has  been  taken.     In  the 

1  Nouv.  Ess.,  145.  -  Grandgent,  art.  30. 


210 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


feminine  forms  there  is  greater  diversity  of  spelling  than  in 
the  mascuhne,  but  the  words  will  all  be  found  under  the 
analogical  form  -lERA,  as  resembling  the  masculine  form 
most,  though  -EIRA  is  more  usual  in  the  texts. 

Under  -lER  with  the  meaning  of  the  agent,  from  an 
original  -ARIUS,  we  find: 


afanier,^  workman 

agulhier,  needle-maker 

alberguier,^  innkeeper 

almonier,  almoner 

aludier,  tanner 

arbalestier,  crossbowman 

argurier,  soothsayer 

aventurier,     strolling     merchant, 
peddler 

bagasier,  whoremonger 

bailier,  manager,  director 

bandairier,^  flag-bearer 

bandier,    country   constable;   ser- 
geant 

baratier,      bargainer,     trafficker, 
cheat 

barbier,  barber 

barralier,^  cooper 

bolter,  keeper  of  seals 

boquier,*  butcher 

bordier,  farmer,  tenant 

bordonier,^  pilgrim,  crusader  ( ?) 

borsier,  purse-maker,  treasurer 

brasier,  workman 

budelier,  tripe-seller 

burelier,  borlier,  saddler 

'  Or  possibly  formed  on  a  verb. 


afan,  labor 
agulha,  needle 
alberc,  inn 
almona,  alms 
aluda,  a  kind  of  leather 
arbalesta,  crossbow 
argur,^  augur,  augury 
aventura,  luck,  fortune 

bagasa,  prostitute 
baile,  intendant 
bandiera,  banner 
banda,  ban 

barat,  deception 

barba,  beard 

barral,  barrel 

bola,  papal  bull 

hoc,  he-goat 

borda,  small  farm 

bordon,  staff 

borsa,  purse 

bratz,  arm 

budel,  bowels 

burel,  drugget,  fustian 


Seep.  221. 

2  Assimilation  to  the  following  r  may  be  seen  here. 

'  See  carrairier  and  the  note  on  it,  p.  211 ;  also  double  suffixes,  p.  399. 

*  See  Stud.  Rom.,  IX,  150,  for  an  interesting  account  of  the  develop- 
ment of  this  word.  According  to  Marchot,  the  boquier  was  originally 
one  who  dealt  in  the  delicate  flesh  of  young  he-goats;  and  the  words 
came  into  fashion  with  the  meaning  of  "butcher"  through  the  kind  of 
snobbishness  that  has  changed  the  Fr.  barbiers  into  perruquiers  and 
coiffeurs. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


211 


cabalier,  capitalist 

cabasier,^  basket-maker 

cabrier,  goatherd 

cambrier,  chamberlain 

caminier,  carrier 

campanier,  bell-ringer 

canabasier,^  weaver 

candelier{a),  candle-maker 

capdalier,  capdelier,  leader 

capelier,"  hatter 

capitolier,  member  of  municipal 
council 

car  eerier,  jailer 

caritadier,  chief  of  corporation 

carnificier,^  butcher 

carrairier,*  carter  ( ?) 

carretier,  carter 

codrasier,^  hoop-maker 

cofier{a),  cap-maker 

coiratier,-  trainer 

coladier,-  porter,  carrier  of  bur- 
dens 

colier,  porter 

coltelier,  cutler 

concalongier,^  disputant 

cordalier,^  rope-maker 

cordoanier,  dealer  in  (Cordovan) 
leather 

cordier,  rope-maker 

corregier,  strap-maker 

corturier,  courtier 

costurier,  dressmaker 


cabal,  capital 

cabas,  basket 

cabra,  goat 

cambra,  room 

camin,  road 

campana,  bell 

canabas,  hemp 

candela,  candle 

capdal,  capdel,  capital 

capel,  hat 

Capitol,  municipal  council 

career,  prison 
caritat,  corporation 

carra,  car 

carreta,  cart 

codra,  hoop 

cofa,  cap 

{*  coir  at,  from  coir,  leather) 

col(ada),  (blow  on)  neck 

col,  neck 

coltela,  knife 

calonja,  slander 

corda,  cord 

cordoan,  (Cordovan)  leather 

corda,  cord 

correja,  strap 

(*cortura,  from  cart,  court) 

costura,  sewing 


1  See  under  double  suffixes,  the  compound  suffix  -ASIER,  p.  401. 

2  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  382,  395,  393,  400. 

3  No  simple  word  found  in  Prov.  Carnificier  seems  to  go  back  to  a 
Lat.  *carnificiarius,  from  carnifex. 

'  Levy  give  no  translation  for  the  word.  "Carter"  seems  to  be  its 
meaning,  and  the  formation  is  car +-ARI +-ARIUS.  Olcott,  139, 
speaks  of  this  kind  of  formation  in  the  inscriptions,  citing  calcariarius, 
and  comparing  these  words  with  the  Engl,  "fruiterer,"  and  describing 
them  as  formations  for  greater  length.     See  also  double  suffixes,  p.  399. 

5  See  parasyntheta,  p.  528. 


212 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


cozinier,  cook 

dardier,  man  armed  with  javelin 
dardasier,^  man  armed  with  darts 
dauradier,^  goldsmith 
daurelier,^  goldsmith 
defensier,-  defender 
deguier,  guardian  of  land 
desenier,  tithing-man 
desmier,  tax-collector 
despesier,^  spendthrift 
domengier,  possessor  of  property 
drapier,  draper 
ensenairier,^  standard-bearer 
ermenier,  dealer  in  ermine  skins 
escarnier,"^  mocker 
escarselier,  pocket-maker 
esclopier,  maker  of  wooden  shoes 
escicdelier,^    maker     (finisher)     of 

shields    (2d  meaning) 
esperonier,  maker  of  spurs 
espesier,  grocer 
espondier,^  executor  of  will 
esportalier,  basket-maker 
esquelier,  bell-maker  or  dealer 
estanhier,  tinsmith 
estanquier,  overseer  of  pond 
estestier*  butcher  who  sells  heads 
estivandier,^  harvest-worker 
estradier,  robber 

evangelistier,  priest  (2d  meaning) 
fachier,    farmer    who    gives    half 

produce  as  rent 
fachilhier,^  sorcerer 
fachurier(a),^  sorceress 
faisier,  porter 
faisilhier,  porter 


cozina,  kitchen 

dart,  javelin 

{dart,  dart) 

{*daurada,  from  daurar) 

defensa,  defense 

dec,  land,  property,  boundary 

desen,  tithe 

desma,  tax,  tithe 

despes,  expenditure 

dotnenge,  property 

drap,  cloth 

ensenhiera,  standard 

ermeni,  ermine 

escarn,  mockery 

escarsela,  pocket 

esclop,  wooden  shoe 

escut,  shield 

esperon,  spur 

espeda,  spice 

esponda,  edge  of  bed 

csportela,  small  basket 

esquelha,  bell 

estanh,  tin 

estanc,  pond 

testa,  head 

(estivanda  (  ?)<estivar,  harvest) 

estrada,  street 

evangelista,  evangelist 

facha,  property,  land 

fachilha,  charms 

fachura,  charms 

fais,  load 

i*faisilha,  irom  fais,  load) 


'  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  401,  393,  401,  n.  1,  399,  400,  383. 

2  See  also  formations  on  verbs,  p.  221. 

'  A  queer  development  of  meaning  =  apparently  the  one  at  the  edge 
of  the  bed  of  a  dying  person. 

*  See  parasyntheta,  p.  528. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


213 


fargoer,  smith 

farinier,  flour-dealer 

fazendier,^  farmer,  tenant 

felpier,  manufacturer  of  velveteen 

fennalhier,^  manufacturer  of 
buckles 

fermier,  farmer 

ferralhier,^  ironmonger 

ferrasier,  ironmonger 

filttdier,-  spinner 

filatier,^  weaver,  spinner 

flasadier,  manufacturer  of  wool 
covers 

floquier,  wool-seller 

fogasier,  one  who  sells  buttered 
rolls 

fogatgier,^  collector  of  hearth-tax 

folradurier,  dealer  in  skins 

folrier,  plunderer 

fondeguier,^  warehouseman 

fontanier,  inspecter  of  wells 

forestier,  forester 

formatgier,  cheese-dealer 

forrnier,  dealer  in  lasts 

fornier,  oven-maker 

fornilhier,^  dealer  in  kindling- 
wood 

frairesquiei;^  one  who  shares  with 
his  brother 

frenier,  rein-maker 

frontadier,^  neighbor 

fruchier,  fruit-dealer 

fuzelier,  spindle-maker 

gabarrier,  sailor  of  freight  ship 


fargoa,  farga,  forge 

farina,  flour 

fazenda,  affair,  occupation 

fermalh,  buckle 

ferma,  farm 
ferralha,  old  iron 
ferrasa,  fire-shovel 
filada,  skein,  ball 
filata  (?),  long  beam 
flasada,  covering 

jU)C,  flake,  tuft 
fogasa,  buttered  roll 

fogatge,  hearth-tax 

folradura,  fur 

folre,  household  utensils  ( ?  ) 

fontana,  fountain 
forest,  forest 
forniatge,  cheese 
forma,  last 
forn,  oven 
fornilha,  twig 

frairesca,  brother's  portion 

fren,  rein 

frontada,  front,  facade 
fruch,  fruit 
fuzel,  spindle 
gabarra,  freight  ship 


1  See  double  suffixes,  401,  400,  384,  and  383. 

2  See  explanation  of  the  suffix  -ADIER,  pp.  218-20;  also  double 
suffixes,  393. 

3  There  is  no  word  found  in  O.Prov.  on  which  to  base  fondeguier, 
although  in  Mod.  Prov.  we  Rnd  foundegue  (Mistral,  I,  1160),  a,nd  fondaco 
exists  in  It.  Fondeguier  is  therefore  probably  formed  on  some  corre- 
sponding base-word  in  O.Prov.,  although  fundicarius  is  found  in  Du 
Cange. 


214 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


gfidier,  country  policeman ;  execu- 
tor of  will 

gamier,  sheath-maker 

galinier,  dealer  in  poultry 

galochier,  manufacturer  of  wooden 
shoes 

galwpier,  sailor  of  "galup" 

gantier,  glove-maker 

gatgier,  executor  of  will  (see  also 
abstracts,  p.  228) 

genhier,  cheat,  swindler 

gipier,  manufacturer  of  plaster 

glazier,  swordsman  (also  slaugh- 
ter) 

grafier,  writer,  chancery-clerk 

granatier,^ salt-agent;  grain-dealer 

grolier,  shoemaker 

guerrier,  warrior  (also  in  other 
Romance  languages) 

jaulier,  jailer 

jupier,  skirt-maker 

juponier,'^  manufacturer  of  petti- 
coats 

jitsticier,  executioner 

lagotier,  flatterer 

lampier,  lamplighter 

latinier,  linguist 

lauzengier,^  liar,  cheat 

lavandier{a},*  laundress 

legendier,^  priest 

lepaudier,  one  who  licks,  gorman- 
dizer 

eudier,  tax-collector 

liaunier,  heretic  (of  Lyons) 

logadier,^  mercenary 

logandier,*  one  who  lets 


gadi,  boundary;  will 

ga'ina,  sheath 

galina,  hen 

galocha,  wooden  shoe 

galup,  kind  of  ship 
gant,  glove 
gatge,  pledge 

genh,  trick 
gip,  plaster 
glazi,  sword 

grafi,  stylus 
granet,  small  grain 
grola,  shoe 
guerra,  war 

jaula,  cage 
jupa,  skirt 
jupori,,  petticoat 

justici,  justice 

lagot,  flattery 

lampa,  lamp 

latin,  Latin 

lauzenja,  flattery 

lavanda,  wash,  from  lavar 

legend^,  legend 

{*lepaiit,  from  lepar,  Uck) 

leuda,  a  tax 
Liaun,  Lyons 
logada,  from  logar 
{loganda,  from  logar,  to  let) 


I  See  double  suffixes,  p.  395.  Granalier  appears  to  be  derived  from 
granet,  and  to  owe  its  a  to  a  confusion  with  granat,  pomegranate.  See 
clamatier,  p.  218. 

s  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  383,  393. 

'  See  also  the  formations  on  verbs,  p.  221,  below. 

*See  -ANDIER,  -ENDIER,  p.  400,  under  double  suffixes. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


215 


mainadier,^  head  of  family 

maizonier,  lodger 

marinier,  sailor 

megier,  one  who  conducts  a  farm 

on  shares 
meisonier,  harvester 
meitadier,    one    who    conducts   a 

farm  on  shares 
menestrier,'  minstrel 
mensongier,  har 
mercier,  mercer 
mercadier,  merchant 
mercadanier,^  merchant 
mesatgier,^  messenger 
niesier,  servant  (at  table  [  ?]) 
metalier,  metal-worker 
miralhier,  looking-glass  maker 
molinier,  miller 
moltonier,  sheep-dealer 
midatier,^  muleteer 
mulier,  muleteer 
murtrier,^  murderer 
7imdier,*  boatman 
neulier,  waffle-vendor  ( ?) 
novelier,  newsdealer 
obediensier,  monk  belonging  to  a 

cloister 
obrier,    workman,    churchwarden 

(cf.  the  French  bayic  de  Vceuvre) 
oficier,  officer 
oZier,  potter 

olier,  manufacturer  of  oil 
omicidier,  murderer 
ordenier,^  executor  of  a  will 
ospitalier,  Hospitaller;  director  of 

hospital 

1  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  393,  n.  t,  383,  395. 

=  Probably  not  formed  directly,  the  -lER  being  a  substitution  for 
the  -AL  of  menestral.     Cf.  the  Fr.  menelrier. 

3  Possibly  formed  on  verbs.     See  p.  221. 

<  Naulier  has  possibly  become  restricted  in  meaning  to  "boatman," 
through  association  with  7iau,  boat,  instead  of  meaning  any  collector  of 
fares. 


viainada,  family 
maizon,  house 
marina,  shore 
7neg,  half 

meison,  harvest 
meitat,  half 

menestre,  servant 

mensonja,  lie 

mercz,  merchandise 

niercat,  market 

mercadana,  utensil  of  commerce 

viesatge,  message 

mes,  dish 

metal,  metal 

miralh,  looking-glass 

molin,  mill 

molton,  sheep 

mulat,  mule 

viul,  mule 

murtre,  murder 

naule,  fare,  passage-money 

neule,  waffle 

novela,  news 

obediensa,  cloister 

obra,  work 

ofici,  office 
ola,  pot 
oli,  oil 

omicidi,  murder 
ordenh,  will 
ospital,  hospital 


216 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


ostalier,^  innkeeper 

ovelhier,  shepherd 

padoensier,  one  who  has  right  of 
pasture 

pairolier,  tinker 

palafrenier,  groom 

palhetier,  cloak -maker 

panetier,^  baker  (cf.  also  panatier, 
Notw.  Ess.,  233) 

parcelier,  participant 

paredier,  master-mason 

parier,  participant 

parsonier,  sharer 

pasatgier,  boatman 

pastisier,  pastry  cook 

pavezier,  shield-maker 

pazier,  peacemaker 

peatgier,^  toll-collector 

pebrier,  pepper-seller 

peiralier,^  mason 

peisonier,  fisherman 

pelisier,^  dealer  in  skins 

penchenier,  maker  of  combs,  or 
wool-comber  ( ?) 

perdiguier,-  partridge-hunter 

perponchier,  maker  of  doublets 

personier,  deputy,  representative 

pesquirier,^  fisherman 

pestrinhier,  baker 

petier,*  one  who  farts 

pinhotier,  one  who  receives  alms 
at  a  charitable  institution  ( ?) 

pintier,  maker  of  "pintas" 

pipier,  cooper 

piquier,  soldier  armed  with  a  pike 

pitansier,  almoner 

plasier,  citizen  in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances 


osial,  inn 

ovelha,  sheep 

padoensa,  right  of  pasture 

pairol,  kettle 
palajre{n),  palfrey 
palhet,  cloak 
pan,  bread 

parcela,  lot 
paret,  wall 
par,  peer,  equal 
parson,  part    " 
pasatge,  passage 
pastis,  tart 
paves,  shield 
patz,  peace 
peatge,  toll 
pebre,  pepper 
peira,  stone 
peison,  fish 
pelisa,  pelisse,  fur 
penche,  comb 


perponcha,  doublet 

persona,  person 

pesquier,  fishpond 

pestrinh,  trough 

pet,  fart 

pinhota,  house  where  alms  are 

distributed 
pinta,  a  measure 
pipa,  pipe,  cask 
pic,  pike 
pitansa,  pittance 
plasa,  residence 


1  See  double  suffixes,  pp.  383-4,  395,  400. 

2  Probably  from  a  Lat.   *perdicarius,    though  only   perdicalis,   an 
adjective,  is  found. 

^ Pesquirier  is  an  interesting  form.     Pescairier  would  be  expected. 
'  Probably  formed  on  the  verb  pctar. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


217 


platier,  maker  of  plate-armor 
plombier,  plumber 
polalhier,^  poultry-dealer 
polasier,^  poultry-dealer 
pontier,  bridge-watchman 
porcelier,  breeder  of  pigs 
portanier,  doorkeeper ;  toll-collector 
portier,     doorkeeper;      officer     in 

charge  of  watch  at  city  gate 
postier,  oven-boy 
potatgier,  innkeeper 
pozandier,^  drawer 
prebendier,  prebendary 
preizonier,  prisoner 
proier,  mate  on  a  ship 
putanier,  whoremonger 
quinzenier,  tax-collector  for  period 

of  fifteen  days 
rauzier,  vendor  of  refuse 
renovier,*  usurer 

rosinier,  rider  of,  or  dealer  in,  nags 
sabatier,  cobbler 
setmanier,  officer  of  the  week 
simier,  monkey-trainer 
soldier,  soldadier,^  soldier,  mercenary 
soquier,  shoemaker 
sortilhier,  sorcerer 
talhandier,^  tailor 
teisandier  ,''■  weaver 
templier,  Templar 
tendier,  shopkeeper 
trafeguier,  trafficker 
treilhier,  lattice-worker 
trotier,*  servant 
vaquier,^  cowherd 


plata,  plate  of  metal 
plom{b),  lead 
polalha,  poultry 
polatz,  chicken 
pout,  bridge 
parcel,  pig 
porta,  gate 
porta,  gate 

post,  plank 
potatge,  soup 
pozar,  draw 
prebend,  prebend 
preizon,  prison 
proa,  prow 
putana,  prostitute 
qiiinzena,  fortnight 

rauza,  refuse 

renou,  usury 

rosin,  nag 

sabata,  shoe 

setmana,  week 

simi,  monkey 

solda,  soldada,  pay 

soc,  shoe 

sortilha,  sorcery 

{*talhanda,  from  talhar,  cut) 

{*teisanda,  from  teiser,  weave) 

temple,  temple 

tenda,  shop 

trafeg,  traffic 

treilha,  arbor 

trot,  walk 

vaca,  cow 


1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

2  See  double  suffixes  under  -ANDIER,  p.  400. 
5  See  double  suffixes  under  -ADIER,  p.  393. 
♦See  formations  on  verbs,  p.  221. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are:  anelier,  ving-mnkerK a nularius  (see 
Olcott,  142);  arquier,  archer<  arcamts  (Olcott,  142);  cavalhier,  hoTse- 
ma.n  <i  caballarius ;  conselhier,  counsellor  K  consiliarius  (Olcott,  149); 
ferrier,  ironmonger Kferi-arius  (Olcott,   loS);  fustier,  carpenter  {<  fusti- 


218  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Besides  the  usual  addition  of  -lER  to  nouns,  it  seems 
also  in  a  few  cases  to  have  been  added  to  adjectives  to 
form  nouns  denoting  the  agent.  Models  for  this  kind 
of  formation  are  found  in  Latin'  in  such  words  as  adver- 
sarius  (on  adversus)  >  Provengal  aversier.  Provengal  for- 
mations in  -lER  are: 

blanquier,  tanner  blanc,  white 

caninier,  dog-fancier  canin,  canine 

cartanier,  tetrarch  cartan,  quartan,  quadrennial 

enjermier,  nurse  enferm,  ill 

viejanier,\  mediator  mejan,  intermediate 

Still  denoting  the  agent,  the  suffix  -lER,  from  -ARIUS, 
is  found  added  to  verb-stems  in  a  few  words,  a  list  of 
which  will  be  given  below.  Some  of  these  words,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  -ATIER  instead  of  -lER  added  to 
the  verb-stem,  and  these  will  be  treated  first.  An  example 
of  this  kind  of  formation  is  clamatier,  one  who  complains; 
also  creditor  or  dun,  possibly  a  Latin  formation.  Clama- 
tarius,  indeed,  is  given  in  Du  Cange.  Levy  notes  another 
form  omitted  by  Raynouard — clamadier — which  would 
resemble  dauradier,  frontadier,   and   other  words  in  the 

1  Olcott,  138.  See  the  adjective  suffix  -lER  for  a  more  thorough 
treatment  of  the  origin  of  these  words. 


arius  =fustuarius;  (see  Olcott,  153) ;  lanier,  wool-dealer  <  lanarius 
(Olcott,  155);  lansier,  lance-heaieT <.lanccarius  (Olcott,  155);  lanternier, 
lantern-Tnaker <lanternarius  (Olcott,  156);  wam7/iier,  churchwarden< 
matricularius;  maisnier,  inercenaTyKmansionarius;  mazelhier,  butcher< 
macellarius  (Olcott,  157);  pelhier,  furrier <pi7anws  (Olcott,  162);  polier, 
poultryman<  pullarius  (Olcott,  164) ;  saumier,  beast  of  burden<sa£?- 
marius;  sotz-selhier,  maker  of  saddle-cloth<  subselliarius  (Olcott,  170), 
showing  the  change  of  the  prefix  SUB-  to  SUBTUS-;  uzurier,  usurer< 
usurarius;  also  carpeniierKcarpentarius.     Cairavelhier  is  obscure. 

Of  probable  Lat.  origin  arc  fodier,  earth- worker  or  laborer;  man- 
ganier,  huckster  (see  Du  Cange,  mangonarius) ;  and  nautonier,  sailor. 
Fodier  may  come  from  fundarius,  derived  from  fundus,  although  the 
disappearance  of  the  "n"  would  be  unusual.  Nautonier  is  apparently 
derived  fro-m  a  late  Lat.  nauton  (cf.  the  Fr.  nautonier). 


t  T.at.  formations  are  aversier  (adversarius)  and  destrier  (dextrarius). 


Formation  of  Nouns  219 

preceding  list.  Clamatier  and  dmnadier  may  be  compared 
to  filatier  and  filadier  in  the  preceding  list,  both  meaning 
"one  who  spins. "  Filatier  is  there  given  beside  filata,  long 
beam,  but  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  connected  with 
filar,  to  spin,  just  as  much  as  filadier  is.  In  the  same  way 
clamatier  and  clamadier  are  the  same  word,  and  possible 
to  place  under  the  formations  on  nouns. ^  Conversely, 
all  the  forms  in  -ADIER  might  be  placed  here  as  verb- 
formations,  as,  for  example,  frontadier  from  frontar,  dau- 
radier  from  daurar.  But  in  the  case  of  frontadier,  for 
example,  there  is  also  a  noun  frontada,  on  which  it  seems 
natural  to  build  frontadier.  In  the  case  of  dauradier, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  noun  daurada  on  which 
to  build  dauradier.  This  gives  us,  then,  a  new  suffix 
-AD-IER,  from  -AT-ARIUS,  exactly  similar  in  its  origin 
to  such  suffixes  as  -ADITZ,  -ADURA,  etc.  In  other 
words,  frontadier  was  formed  on  frontada,  and  not  on 
frontar,  in  all  probability,  but  by  the  analogy  of  such  words 
as  these,  dauradier  was  made  by  attaching  -ADIER  to 
the  stem  of  daurar.^  -ADIER  was  then  treated  just  as 
any  single  suffix.  In  dauradier  and  daurier,  single  and 
double  suffix  are  seen  side  by  side.  In  treating  clamadier 
and  filadier,  forms  with  a  t  instead  of  a  (i  have  been 
mentioned.  According  to  Thomas^  there  are  many  others, 
most  of  which  are  not  given  in  Raynouard  or  Levy. 
Thomas  gives  the  following  list:  boscatier,  bovatier,  causa- 
tier,  coratier  (correct  to  corratierf),  degatier,  egatier,  filatier, 

» The  two  forms  clamatier  and  clamadier  might  be  made  on  the  two 
forms  of  the  past  participle,  clamat  and  clamada. 

'  Another  word  of  the  type  of  dauradier  is  mandadier,  baker's  boj% 
formed  on  mandar,  send,  order.  Cf.,  however,  the  Sp.  mandadero,  derived 
from  mandado. 

3  Nouv.  Ess.,  233.  These  cases  show  one  more  development  in  the 
use  of  the  sufSx,  -ADIER  now  being  attached  to  nouns  instead  of  to 
verb-stems. 


220  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

granatier,  lobatier,  mulatier,  orsatier,  panatier,  pelatier,  por- 
catier,  telatier}  These  are  clearly  Provencal  formations 
vnih.  the  suffix  -ATIER.  Some  word  ending  in  -AT,  to 
which  -lER  was  added,  formed  a  starting-point  for  the 
compound  sufHx  -ATIER,  which  is  here  added  to  hose, 
bov,  causa,  dec,  fit,  etc.  Thus  -ADIER  and  -ATIER  have 
come  to  be  added  directly  both  to  nouns  and  to  verbs 
instead  of  -lER,  which  had  acquired  both  of  these  uses. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  double  suffixes  -ANDIER 
and  -ENDIER-  were  derived  in  the  same  way.  Beven- 
dier,  for  instance,  from  the  noun  bevenda,  drink,  'from 
*bever,  for  heure,  may  be  the  starting-point  for  nouns  in 
-ANDIER  and  -ENDIER.  The  list  of  words  in  which 
the  single  suffix  -lER  was  added  to  verb-stems  may  now 
be  given: 

amonedier,  money-changer  amonedar,  coin  money.      From 

moneda,  coin 
daurier,  goldsmith  (see  above)  daurar,  gild 

escairier,       horse-slaughterer,  From  escairar,  kill  horses  (found 

knacker  also  with  the  suffix  -ADOR, 

a  regular  case  of  the  use  of 
this  suffix). 
escofier,  leather-preparer  or  dealer      From  escofir,  kill,  murder.   Here 

the  connection  in  meaning  is 
clear  enough  if  we  take  escofir 
to  mean  to  kill  animals  and  the 
original  meaning  of  escofier  to 
be  preparer  of  leather. 
flequier,^  baker  flechir,  bend,  soften 

menuzier,  carpenter  menuzar,  diminish 

parlier,  chatterer  parlar,  to  speak 

pastitrguier,  shepherd  pasturgar,  graze,  make  graze 

1  This  list  of  course  omits  such  words  as  baratier  and  regratier,  in 
which  the  at  was  part  of  the  stem  of  the  verb. 

2  See  the  words  with  these  endings  under  double  suffixes,  p.  400. 

'  Possibly  referring  to  the  kneading  of  the  dough,  but  the  connection 
is  not  clear  and  the  derivation  of  the  word  seems  uncertain. 


Formation  of  Nouns  221 

refacier,  huckster,  peddler  refacer,  for  refar,  do  over 

regralier,  huckster,  peddler  regratar,  scratch 

segrier,  follower  segre,  follow 

Both  refacier  and  regralier  have  taken  a  somewhat 
figurative  meaning,  the  first  perhaps  with  the  idea  of  the 
repairing  of  old  things  for  a  second  sale,  the  second  pos- 
sibly with  the  idea  of  scratching  out  prices  ( ?) . 

The  Avords  in  the  above  list  are  the  only  ones  which 

must  surely  have  been  formed  on  verb-stems,  but  some 

of  the  words  given  in  the  first  list  may  have  been  formed 

equally  well  on  a  verb-stem.     For  example: 

afanier,  from  afan  or  afanar 
defensier,  from  defensa  or  defensar 
despesier,  from  despes  or  despesar 
escarnier,  from  escarn  or  escarnir 
lauzengier,  from  lauzenja  or  lauzenjar 
murtrier,  from  murtre  or  murtrir 
ordenier,  from  orden  or  ordenar 
petier,  from  pet  or  petar 
renovier,  from  renou  or  renovar 
trotier,  from  trot  or  trotar 

Most  of  these  words  were  probably  formed  on  nouns 
according  to  rule ;  but  they  may  have  served  as  a  starting- 
point  for  new  formations  on  verb-stems  containing  no 
corresponding  noun  to  which  the  suffix  might  be  added. 

Now,  besides  the  -lER  with  the  meaning  of  the  agent, 
from  the  Latin  -ARIUS,  we  find  -lER  with  other  mean- 
ings, derived  from  words  in  -ARIUM,  the  neuter  form 
of  the  adjective  in  -ARIUS.  This  kind  of  formation  is 
found  in  Latin  even,  with  the  meaning  of  a  place  or 
receptacle  for  something  {aquarium,  armarium,  etc.), 
and  also  in  a  few  words  with  the  force  of  a  tax  to  pay 
(calcearium).  But  in  Provengal  it  is  necessary  to  sub- 
divide much  farther  than  this  the  meanings  given  by  the 
addition  of  -IER= -ARIUM.  To  begin  with,  the  idea  of 
place   has  been  retained  and  is  frequent  in  new  words, 


222  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

but  the  meaning  of  a  tax  is  found  only  in  two  words: 
loguier,  which  is  probably  Latin  (locarium^) ,  and  agrier. 
After  the  words  with  the  meaning  of  the  place  for  a 
thing  comes  a  larger  list  denoting  the  instrument  with 
which  to  perform  an  action.  Then  from  the  idea  of  place 
containing  many  things  it  is  only  a  step  to  pure  collectives, 
and  also  to  names  of  trees,  as  places  where  the  fruit 
described  by  the  simple  words  could  be  found.  A  few  other 
words  offer  little  change  of  meaning  from  the  simple  word. 
With  the  meaning  of  place,  there  are  a  few  new  words 
in  Provengal: 

cairier.      Levy      suggests      only 

"entrepot,"^    warehouse,     and 

the  only  word  to  which  -lER 

could  be  added  here  seems  to  be 

caire,  corner,  edge,  with  which 

the    connection    is    not    clear. 

"Entrepot"   seems   to   be  the 

meaning  required  by  the  text. 
canabier,  hemp-field  canabe,  hemp 

carnier,  charnel-house;  slaughter;     earn,  flesh 

game-bag 
escudelhier,  receptacle  for  bowls         escudel,  bowl 
foguier,^  hearth,  fireplace  foe,  fire 

formiguier,  ant-hill  fortniga,  ant 

letrier,  choir-desk  letra,  letter 

liberier,  choir-desk  libre,  book 

penier,  writing-desk  pena,  pen 

plantier,  nursery  for  trees  planta,  plant 

polier,'\  poultry-yard  pol,  chicken 

Also  clapier,   rabbit-burrow,   which  from  both  form 

»  Cooper,  75.  M,  185. 

'Exists  also  in  French  and  Spanish,  but  is  not  found  as  a  Latin 
word. 


t  Also  the  following  words  formed  in  Lat.  times:  armier,  sepulcher 
graveyard <armariwm  (Olcott,  177);  celhier,  cellar,  sta,hle<.cellarium, 
a  common  word  found  in  Olcott,  Ronsch,  Goelzer,  and  Cooper;  pesquier, 
fishpond  <piscarmm;  sagrier,  sanctuary <sacram<m  (Olcott,  180) ;  mnhier, 
viney  aTd<vinarium. 


Formation  of  Nouns  223 

and  meaning  should  belong  to  this  list,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  meaning  from  da-p,  pile  ( ?)  is  not  clear. 

Another  meaning  which  -lER,  from  -ARIUM,  takes 
is  that  of  the  instrument  or  thing  containing,  or  to  con- 
tain, the  simple  noun.  In  som,e  cases,  words  might  be 
placed  either  in  this  list  or  in  the  preceding  one,  the 
difference  being  slight.  For  example,  letrier,  choir-desk, 
might  be  thought  of  either  as  place  or  instrument,  and 
there  are  many  words  of  this  kind: 

arbrier,  crossbow  stock  arbre,  tree 

berroier,  weapon  made  in  Berry 

bloquier,  shield,  buckler  bloca,  boss;   lump 

braguier,  belt  braga,  breeches 

brazier,  brasier  braza,  glowing  mass 

bugadier,  wash-basin  bugada,  wash 

cabelhier,  headgear^  cabelh,  hair 

calendier,   calendar  (also  list   fol-  calenda,  feast-day 
lowing) 

candelier,  candlestick  candela,  candle 

cremalhier,  hearth  cremalh,  pothook 

cuisier,  thigh-plate^  cuisa,  thigh 

dragier,  candy-dish  dragea,  candy 

encensier,  censer  encens,  incense 

escaquier,  chessboard  escac,  chess 

espilier,  pincushion    .  espil,  needle 

forsier,  large  chest  forsa,  force,  power 

gotier,  gutter  gota,  drop 

larmier,  coping,  drip  larma,  tear 

obrier,  crossbow  stock  (should  prob- 
ably be  written  arbrier,  as  above) 

peirier,  instrument  for   throwing  peira,  stone 
stones 

ponchier,^  pickax  ponch,  point 

1  Cabelhier  and  cuisier  have  the  meaning  of  clothing,  more  commonly 
found  under  -lERA. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are:  aurelhier,  pillow<auricularius,  found  as 
an  adjective  (Olcott,  143) ;  culhier,  spoon,  probably  from  cochlearium, 
for  cochleare;  doblier,  doublet,  chessboard  <dMp/ariMs,  for  duplaris 
(Olcott,  151) ;  lampezier  and  madier.  Lampezier,  candelabrum  (also  an 
adjective),  is  from  lampadarium  (Olcott,  155);  madier,  lid  of  baking- 
trough,  is  from  materium. 


224  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Under  either  of  the  precedings  hsts,  the  one  denoting 

the  place  or  the  one  denoting  the  instrument,  might  be 

given  a  few  words  which  are  almost  collective  in  force, 

several  of  them  denoting  the  book  containing  a  collection 

of  the  thing  described  by  the  simple  word: 

comtier,  calendar  of  feasts  comte,  account 

epistolier,  book  of  epistles  epistola,  epistle 

legendier,^  f  collect-book  legenda,  legend 

From  words  such  as  these  the  transition  to  pure 
collectives  is  almost  imperceptible.  This  next  list  con- 
tains not  words  meaning  the  book  or  thing  containing  a 
number  of  things,  but  the  number  of  things  itself. 

comunalhier,  association  of  a  muni-  comunalha,  community 

cipality 

elementier,  the  elements  elemen{l),  element 

escrivanier,  writing  apparatus  escrivan,  writer 

garbier,  pile  of  sheaves  garba,  sheaf 

latter,   tariff   of   the   fines   called  lata,  a  fine  for  slowness  in  pay- 

"lata"  ing  a  debt 

palhier,  straw  pile  palha,  straw 

ramier,]]  foUage  ram,  branch 

A  development  of  the  idea  of  place — place  where  the 
object  denoted  by  the  simple  noun  could  be  found  in 
quantities — is  seen  in  a  number  of  nouns  meaning  trees.- 
Thus  are  found : 

aiglantier,  wild  rose  stem  (only  aiglentin  found) 

avelanier,  oak  avelana,  acorn 

castanhier,  chestnut  tree  castanh,  chestnut 

1  See  double  suffixes  under  -ANDIER,  -ENDIER,  p.  400. 

-  These  were,  of  course,  originally  adjectives.     Arbre,  tree,  was  later 
understood  and  the  adjective  used  substantively. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  there  are  escalier,  staircase Kscalarium,  and  calendier, 
collect-book  <  calendarium. 

tt  The  following  words  of  Lat.  origin  are  also  found :  fenier,  hay  pile 
Kfenarium;  lenhier,  wood  pile <Ziy/iarius  (Olcott,  156);  milier,  thousand 
<.milliarius  (Olcott,  159). 


Formation  of  Nouns 


225 


eerier,  cherry  tree 
codonhier,  quince  tree 
cornier,  cornel  tree 
figuier,  fig  tree 
garravier,  wild  rose  tree 
glandier,  acorn-bearing  oak 
laurier,  laurel  tree 
mandolier,  melier,  almond  tree 
milgranier,^  pomegranate  tree 
nesplier,  medlar  tree 
palmier,  palm  tree 
perier,  pear  tree 
perseguier,  peach  tree 
pimentier,^]  tree  of  sweetness 


cereia,  cherry 
codonh,  quince 
corn,  cornel,  cherry 

figa,  fig 

garrau  or  garral  ( ?) 
glanda,  acorn 
law,  laurel 

amandola,  mela,  almond 
milgrana,  pomegranate 
nespla,  medlar 
palma,  palm 
pera,  pear 
persega,  peach 
pimen{t),  kind  of  drink 


With  the  meaning  of  a  tax,  besides  loguier <clocarium, 
we  find  also  agrier,  a  field-tithe,  a  substantive  use  of  the 
neuter  form  of  the  Classic  Latin  adjective  agrarius. 

Besides  all  the  special  meanings  given  to  words  by 
the  addition  of  -lER,  there  is  a  list  of  words  to  which 
the  suffix  has  brought  little  or  no  change  in  meaning. 
The  simple  word  had  a  clear  enough  meaning,  and  the 
suffix  appears  to  have  been  added  merely  for  the  sake  of 
greater  length.     Such  words  are: 


autorier,  agent 
broquier,  pot,  jug 
canier,  reed 
clerguier,  priest 
companhier,  companion 
escobilhier,  sweepings 
fenestrier,  opening,  hole 
flamier,  flame,  brand 
grangier,  barn,  shed 
jazier,  bed,  couch 


autor,  author 
broc,  jug,  pitcher 
cana,  reed 
clerc,  clerk 
companh,  companion 
escobilha,  sweepings 
fenestra,  window 
flama,  flame 
granja,  farmhouse 
jatz,  bed,  couch 


1  See  hybrid  formations,  p.  580. 

2  Or  long-pepper  tree.  Pimen,  kind  of  drink,  got  its  name  because 
the  basis  of  the  drink  was  spiced.  See  Du  Cange,  pigmentum;  also 
Romania,  XXXI,  150-51. 


t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  fruchier,  fruit  tree<.fructuarius  (Olcott,  153). 


226  Word-Formation  in  Proven5"al 

masonier,  mason  mason,  mason 

ombrier,  shade  omhra,  shade 

orrezier,^  filth  orrezeza,  filth 

parentier,  relation  paren{t),  relation 

pautonier,  rascal  pauton,  rascal 

pazimentier,  pa\'ing  pazimen,  paving 

pezonier,^  pedestrian  pezon,  pedestrian 

plantier,  newly  planted  vine  planta,  plant 

polverier,  dust,  powder  polvera,  dust 

portalier,^  city  gate  portal,  city  gate 

tempier,^  tempest  tem{p),  weather 

vasier,^  basin  vas,  vessel,  vase 

Now,  besides  all  the  different  meanings  of  the  Provencal 
suffix  -lER  already  given,  there  is  a  rather  large  list  of 
words  with  purely  abstract  force.  This,  however,  in  all 
probability,  does  not  represent  -ARIUS  or  -ARIUM,  as 
the  words  in  the  preceding  lists  do,  but  rather  -ERIUM, 
existing  already  in  Latin  in  nouns  corresponding  to  verbs 
ending    in   -er-are,    as    imperium    to    imyerare,    refrige- 

1  For  orrezezier.  » See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

'  This  does  not  represent  -ARIUM  at  all.  The  Lat.  word  ends  in 
-ERIES,  which  was  later  supplanted  by  -ERIA.  Does  this  word  show 
a  change  of  gender  to  -ERIUM?     See  Nouv.  Ess.,  115. 


t  The  words  of  Lat.  origin  are:  arenier,  graveK aretiarius ;  eretier, 
heir<.hereditarius;  terrier,  terTace<iterrarium. 

There  are  also  a  few  words  ending  in  -lER  that  are  somewhat 
obscure.     Such  are  braguier,  convenensier,  gavarrier,  gavier,  and  grizier. 

braguier,  feathers  under  a  bird's  tail,  if  it  is  derived  from  braga, 
stocking,  as  it  would  at  first  appear,  can  be  classified  in  none  of  the  above 
lists.  It  is  probably  from  a  Lat.  *bracarius,  derived  from  bracae,  which 
meant  "legs"  as  well  as  "stockings."  This  bracarius,  meaning  "per- 
taining to  the  legs,"  was  probably  then  used  substantively.  Thus  we 
have  (the  feathers)  belonging  to  the  legs. 

convenensier  is  probably  an  adjective  derived  from  convenensa, 
meaning  "fitting,"  and  used  substantively.  Or  it  may  be  the  adjective 
itself.     No  translation  is  given  in  Levy. 

gavarrier,  bush  or  clump,  is  obscure. 

gavier,  crop  or  craw,  is  formed  on  the  same  stem  seen  in  gavach. 
Probably  *gava,  found  in  Mistral,  existed  also  in  O.Prov. 

grizier  is  probably  only  the  adjective  "grayish,"  formed  on  gris, 
gray,  used  to  describe  the  liver. 


Formation  of  Nouns  227 

riu7n  to  refrigerare,  and  later  deliherium  to  deliherare} 
To  explain  its  use  as  a  suffix,  Meyer-Liibke  puts  forward 
the  hypothesis  of  the  word  reproverium  as  a  starting- 
point,  this  word  being  formed  on  reprobare,  on  the  model 
of  improperium,  at  the  time  when  the  p  of  improperium 
as  well  as  the  h  of  reprobare  would  be  voiced  to  y.'  Hav- 
ing once  formed  reproverium,  -ERIUM  could  be  taken  as 
a  suffix  to  make  new  formations.  Thomas,  adopting 
Meyer-Liibke's  theorj^  of  -ERIUM  as  the  source  of  the 
abstract  suffix  -lER,  points  out  that  intervocalic  p  did 
not  become  v  in  Provencal,  and  finds  the  solution  of  the 
difficult}^  in  the  old  form  reprober,  from  *reproperium, 
which  is  nothing  but  improperium  with  a  change  of  prefix.^ 
Then,  adding  to  Meyer-Liibke's  original  list  of  abstracts,^ 
he  gives  a  long  list  of  words. ^ 

The  words  in  Thomas'  list  are  all  abstracts,  and  formed 
on  verb-stems  by  means  of  -lER,  from  -ERIUM.  Some 
of  the  w^ords  are  given  as  still  being  in  use.  Three  words, 
however,  cantier,  longuier,  and  panier,  are  given  with 
question  marks. 

To  the  list  given  by  Thomas  should  be  added  several 
other  words^  found  in  Levy  and  Raynouard.  The  com- 
plete list  will  then  be  as  follows : 

1  Nouv.  Ess.,  113. 

2 II,  561,  sec.  471;  quoted  in  Nouv.  Ess.,  111. 

3  Nouv.  Ess.,  112.  *  II,  561. 

5  His  list  is  as  follows:  acordier,  adohier,  alegrier,  alonguier,  asegurier, 
autorguier,  autregier,  caittvier,  cantier,  caplier,  castier,  considier,  consirier, 
deliurier,  demorier,  descordier,  destorbier,  dezacordier,  dezirier,  empachier, 
empaiirier,  encombrier,  enogier,  espaventier,  gabier,  galier,  longuier, 
melhorier,  panier,  pensier,  pertorbier,  plaidier,  podier,  recobrier,  reprobier, 
and  reprochier. 

6  These  words  are:  astelhier,  defensier,  destrechier,  embarguier,  enco- 
bolier,  gatgier,  gravier,  pejorier,  poiridier  (also  poiriguier) ,  and  prolonguier. 
These  words,  with  their  meanings,  will  be  found  in  their  proper  alphabetic 
positions  in  the  complete  list. 


228 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


acordier,  agreement,  treaty 

adobier,  reparation,  arrangement 

alegrier,  joy 

alonguier,  delay 

asegurier,  guarantee 

astelhier,  splitting,  breaking 

autorguier,  permission 

autregier,  consent 

caitivier,  captivity 

cantier,  song 

caplier,  slaughter 

castier,  punishment;  instruction 

considier,^  understanding 

consirier,  thought,  care 

defensier,  resistance 

deliurier,  deliverance,  completion 

demorier,  delay 

descordier,  discord 

destorbier,  trouble 

destrechier,'^  necessity 

dezacordier,  discord 

dezirier,  desire;  also  desired  object 

embarguier,  inconvenience 

empachier,  obstacle 

empastrier,  prevention,  obstacle 

encobolier,  prevention 

encombrier,  prevention,  obstacle; 

embarrassment 
enogier,  annoyance 
espaventier,  fear 

gabier,  exaggeration,  extravagance 
galier,  cheating 
gatgier,  security,  pledge 
gravier,  wrong,  damage 
longuier^ 

'  From  a  Lat.  considerium  (?). 

2  Destrechar  is  not  found,  although  its  existence  is  made  very  probable 
by  the  nouns  destrechamen  and  destrecha. 

3  No  translation  is  given  by  Levj%  and  the  word  is  puzzling.  If 
formed  on  longar,  remove,  it  should  mean  "removal,"  or  possibly,  in  the 
text,  have  some  such  meaning  as  "absence."  A  correction  of  the  word 
to  languir,  however,  seems  very  plausible. 


acordar,  agree 
adobar,  equip,  arrange 
alegrar,  rejoice 
alongar,  lengthen 
asegurar,  assure 
astelhar,  split,  break 
autorgar,  authorize 
autrejar,  grant,  assure 
captivar,  captivate 
cantar,  sing 
caplar,  strike 
castiar,  punish,  teach 

consirar,  consider 
defensar,  defend 
deliurar,  deliver 
demorar,  delay,  remain 
descordar,  disagree 
destorbar,  disturb,  trouble 

dezacordar,  put  into  disaccord 

dezirar,  desire 

embargar,  embarrass,  prevent 

empachar,  prevent 

empastrar,  hinder 

encobolar,  hinder 

encotnbrar,  prevent,  embarrass 

enojar,  annoy 

espaventar,  terrify 

gabar,  joke,  mock,  exaggerate 

galiar,  cheat 

gatjar,  seize;  impose  a  penalty 

gravar,  injure;  be  painful 


Formation  of  Nouns  229 

melhorier,  improvement  melhorar,  improve 

panier,^  trickery  ( ?)  panar,  cheat 

pejorier,  deterioration  pejorar,  deteriorate 

pensier,  thought  pensar,  think 

pertorbier,  disturbance  pertorbar,  disturb 

plaidier,  pleading  plaidar,  plead 
podier,^  power 

poiridier,^  poiriguier,  rottenness        poirir,  rot 

prolonguier,  delay  prolongar,  put  off 

recobrier,  recovery  recobrar,  recover 

reprobier,  reproach,  blame  reprobar,  reprove 

repropchier,\  outrage  repropchar,  reproach 

-lERA 

The  Provencal  suffix  -lERA  (also  spelled  -ERA, 
-EIRA,  according  to  dialect)  is  another  of  the  forms 
derived  from  the  -ARIUS  group,  but  it  has  been  placed 
after  -lER  from  -ERIUM  on  account  of  having  in  Pro- 
vengal  a  different  form  from  the  rest  of  the  -ARIUS 
derivatives  together  with  those  from  -ERIUM.  The 
forms  -lERA,  -ERA,  -EIRA  are  all  derived  from  -ARIA, 
the  feminine  of  -ARIUS,  and  were  probably  used  origi- 

1  Found  with  this  meaning  only  in  the  phrase  faire  panier.  Else- 
where panier  means  "basket." 

2  Not  formed  by  means  of  -ERIUM  at  all.  Here  we  have  the  Vulg. 
Lat.  potere,  seen  also  in  the  It.  potere,  Sp.  poder. 

3  See  also  double  suffi.xes.  Poiridier  is  a  very  peculiar  form,  in  that 
the  termination  -lER  is  not  added  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  but  that  we 
have  to  do  with  a  suffix  -IDIER,  similar  in  appearance  to  -ADIER, 
as  seen  above  in  dauradier,  etc.,  and  coming  from  -AT -|— ARIUS.  It 
does  not  seem  very  probable  that  the  word  poiridier,  formed  on  poirir, 
could  be  due  to  the  analogy  of  dauradier,  formed  on  daurar,  since  in  one 
-lER  denotes  the  agent  and  comes  from  -ARIUS,  whereas  in  the  other 
-lER  has  abstract  force  and  is  from  -ERIUM,  but  it  is  difficult  to  find 
any  other  solution  of  the  difficulty.  *Putridarius  (=  putridus  -|— ARIUS) 
could  give  the  form,  and  putricarius  might  give  poiriguier,  but  it  would 
still  be  difficult  to  account  for  the  abstract  force. 


t  For  the  developments  of  -ARIUS  (-ARIUM)  other  than  -lER, 
see  -AIRE  (p.  62)  and  -AR,  -ARI  (p.  129,  note  2),  above. 


230  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

nally  with  some  word  of  place/  which  was  later  omitted 
but  implied.  The  meanings,  therefore,  do  not  differ  great- 
ly from  those  of  the  words  in  -lER  from  the  neuter 
-ARIUM.  First  of  all,  they  denote  place — the  place 
for  keeping  the  thing  expressed  by  the  simple  noun. 
Like  -lER,  again,  they  have  the  meaning  of  the  instru- 
ment— closely  connected  in  meaning  with  the  idea  of 
place — so  that  some  words,  as,  for  example,  formatgeira 
and  rateira,  might  equally  well  be  placed  under  either  list. 
A  special  meaning  that  these  words  take  is  that  of  an 
article  of  clothing,  as,  for  example,  cambiera,  a  place  for 
the  leg,  or  greaves,  in  armor.  Beginning  with  the  words 
denoting  simply  place,  we  find : 

almonera,  almoner's  purse  almosna,  alms 

balestiera,  loophole  (for  engines  of  balesta,  a  war-engine 

war) 

boisera,  boxwood  grove  bois,  bush 

caireliera,  loophole  for  arrows  cairel,  square,  pane  of  glass 

cardoniera,  goldfinch^  cardon,  thistle 

cartiera,  measure    for    holding    a  cart,  quart 

quart 

cremiera,  small  cap  for  baptism  crema,  holy  oil 

(1st  meaning) 

fariniera,  room  for  flour,  granary  farina,  flour 

feniera,  hay  loft,  hay  pile  fen,  hay 

feuziera,  place  grown  with  ferns  feuze,  fern 
fumeriera,^  dunghill 

gipiera,  plaster  factory  gip,  plaster 

jonquiera,  place  grown  with  reeds  jonc,  reed 

lobiera,  wolf's  den  loba,  wolf 

'  Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  words  which  are  simply  feminine 
forms  of  words  in  -lER.     These  words  will  be  enumerated  farther  on. 

2  I.e.,  a  bird  fond  of  the  seeds  of  the  thistle.  Cf.  the  Fr.  chardon- 
neret,  which  has  a  diminutive  suffix  added  to  -ARIUS. 

3  See  double  suffixes,  p.  399.  The  -er,  which  is  hard  to  explain, 
has  already  been  discussed  under  femoras,  under  the  suffix  -AS  (p.  141, 
n.  t);  e  and  o  seem  about  equally  common  in  femoras,  femeras,  and  some 
other  words. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


231 


maladiera,^  leper  hospital 
viilhiera,  millet  field 
oliviera,^  oil  can 
ombriera,  shady  place 
peiriera,  quarry 
ponhadiera,  kind  of  measure 
saliera,  saltcellar 
testiera,\  headstall 


malaut,  ill 
milh,  millet 
oli,  oil 

ombra,  shade 
peira,  stone 
ponhat,  handful 
sal,  salt 
testa,  head 


There  is  also  one  word  formed  on  an  adjective: 
fresquiera,  cool  place  fresc,  cool 

Then,  as  under  -lER,  come  the  nouns  denoting  the 
instrument  for  the  use  of,  or  to  contain,  the  simple  noun. 
There  is  a  barely  perceptible  transition  from  one  class  to 
the  other.     Here  might  be  placed: 


aiguiera,  ewer 
cropiera,  crupper,  tail  band 
filiera,  drawplate 
formatgiera,  cheese  press 
gotiera,  gutter 
graniera,  broom 
marteliera,'-'  lock,  floodgate 
megiera,  measure  for  liquids 
mostiera,  vessel  for  must 
ostiera,     bag     for     consecrated 

wafers  ( ?) 
palombiera,    place    for    catching 

pigeons 
pastier  a,  trough 


aiga,  water 

cropa,  croup 

fil,  thread 

formatge,  cheese 

gota,  drop 

gran,  grain,  dust 

martel,  hammer 

meg,  half 

most,  must 

ostia,  consecrated  wafer 

palomba,  pigeon 

past,  food 


1  The  form  of  the  word  is  probably  due  to  the  influence  of  ladre, 
leper. 

2  Peculiar  in  form.     We  should  expect  oliera  and  not  oliviera  to 
have  this  meaning. 

'  Cf.  O.Fr.  marteliere. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are:  bruguiera,  heath-covered  la.nd<brucaria, 
and  calquiera,  place  for  burning  lime <caZcaria.  Another  word  probably 
of  Lat.  origin,  is  falguiera,  fern,  from  filicaria  (?).  A  word  having  only 
in  appearance  the  suffix  -lERA  is  campoliera,  olive  grove.  See  compound 
words.  Part  IV,  p.  558. 


232  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

portadiera,^  kind  of  litter  portar,  carry 

ratiera,  rat  trap  rata,  rat 

veiriera,  beehive  made  of  glass  veire,  glass 

Any  one  of  these  words,  however,  might  be  placed  in 
the  previous  hst,  the  difference  between  the  two  kinds 
of  formation  being  very  shght. 

Under  either  of  the  above  hsts — the  one  denoting 
place  or  the  one  denoting  the  instrument — might  be 
placed  several  words,  which,  from  the  idea  of  place,  have 
come  to  possess  the  specialized  meaning  of  articles  of 
clothing,  and,  more  particularly,  pieces  of  armor: 
caheliera,  hair  band  cahel,  hair 

cambiera,  gaiters  camba,  leg 

cerveliera,  helmet  cervel,  brain  •*» 

espaliera,  shoulder-piece  espalha,  shoulder 

gorgiera,  neck-piece  gorja,  throat 

pansiera,  part  of  armor  covering     pansa,  belly 
the  belly 

Again,  as  in  -lER,  there  are  a  few  words  in  -lERA 
with  collective  force: 

garbiera,  pile  of  sheaves  garba,  sheaf 

lamiera,  plate  armor  lama,  metal  plates 

neviera,  covering  of  snow  niu,  snow 

palhiera,  straw  pile  palha,  straw 

There  are   also    several    abstracts    ending  in  -lERA, 

which   probably  is   from  -ERIA,  for  the  Classic  Latin 

-ERIES.     The  Provengal  formations  seem  generally  to 

be  on  adjectives,  though  in  a  few  words  the  root  seems 

to  be  a  verb.     On  adjectives  (except  nadera),  we  find: 

calviera,  baldness  calv,  bald 

longuiera,  length  lone,  long 

naviera,  ship's  course  nau,  ship 

paiibriera,-  poverty  paubre,  poor 

I  Or  portadoira  (  ?) .    This  would  seem  a  more  usual  kind  of  formation. 

»  Paupriera  is  also  found,  though  not  so  commonly.  It  is  probably 
from  pauperia,  with  the  r  due  to  the  influence  of  paubre,  poor.  Paupiera, 
the  regular  development,  is  likewise  found. 


Formation  of  Nouns 


233 


sequiera,  dryness 
And  on  verb-stems: 

acabiera,  perfection 
gatgiera,  pledging 
lauziera,  flattery  ( ?) 
sobriera,  excess,  insult 


sec,  dry 


acabar,  complete 
gatjar,  pledge 
lauzar,  praise 

sobrar,   exceed    (or  possibly  on 
the  preposition  sobre) 


Again,  there  is  a  list  of  words  to  which  the  suffix  con- 
tributes httle  or  no  change  of  meaning: 


bandiera,  banner 

cazaliera,  country  seat 

clapiera,  heap  of  stones 

ensenhiera,  ensign,  banner 

escabesiera,^  head  of  bed, 
bolster 

espondiera,  wooden  leg  (accord- 
ing to  Levy) 

estatgiera,  stand,  frame,  shelves 

forniera,  oven 

frontiera,  forehead 

fumadiera,-  puff  of  smoke 

fumiera,  smoke,  vapor 

galiera,  galley 

lasiera,  bond,  snare,  knot 

lechiera,  litter,  sedan-chair 

lumiera,  light 

magorniera,  stump  of  limb 

mainadiera,  family 

moliera,  millstone 

oriera,  hem  (of  garment) 

pasliera,  dyer's  woad 


banda,  band 
cazal,  country  house 
clap,  heap  of  stones 
ensenha,  battle-cry 
cabes,  head  of  bed 

esponda,  edge  of  bed 

estatge,  place,  residence 
forn,  oven 
front,  forehead 
fumada,  smoke 
funi,  smoke 
gale,  galley 
latz,  rope,  string 
lech,  bed 
lum,  light 

magorn,  leg  without  a  foot 
mainada,  family 
viola,  millstone 
or,  hem 
pastel,  dyer's  woad 


Besides  all  these  words  denoting  things,  -lERA  is 
found  denoting  persons,  and  attached  to  nouns.  These 
nouns  are  mostly  simply  feminine  forms  of  words  ending 
in  -lER  already  given.  Examples  of  such  words  are: 
mangoniera,   merciera,   moliniera,   obriera,  oficiera,  oliera, 

1  See  parasyntheta,  p.  528. 
-  See  double  suffixes,  p.  393. 


234  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

ordeniera  ospitaliera,  'personiera,  yelisiera,  portiera,  prei- 
zoniera,^  etc. 

Two  words  in  -I  ERA  have  the  meaning  of  a  certain 
kind  of  poem,  but  this  is  not  a  meaning  conveyed  by 
the  suffix:  it  is  simply  the  use  of  this  feminine  form  of 
the  agent  suffix  -lER,  with  the  idea  of  a  poem  on  the 
person  described.     Thus: 

nuquiera,  (gooseherd)  =poem  on  a     auca,  goose 

(female)  gooseherd 
cahriera,^  (goatherd)  =  poem  on  a      cobra,  goat 

(female)  goatherd 

-IN 

The  nouns  in  Provencal  ending  in  -IN,  from  the  Latin 
-INUS,  are  mostly  either  adjectives  used  substantively, 
or  else  the  suffix  changes  the  simple  word  very  little. 

'  For  the  meaning  of  these  words,  see  the  first  list  under  -lER. 


t  There  are  several  other  words  in  -lERA  not  Prov.  formations, 
some  undoubtedly  coming  down  to  Prov.  from  Lat.,  others  being  more 
or  less  obscure.     Such  words  are: 

civiera,  litter,  probably  from  the  Lat.  cibaria. 

corniera,  corner,  corner-piece,  from  Lat.  cornaria;  cf.  O.Fr.  corniere, 
and  Engl,  "corner." 

esquiera,  apparently  meaning  a  square  box,  and  probably,  like  the 
Fr.  equerre,  from  excuadra,  which  should  phonetically  give  escaira.  The 
word  has  apparently  been  influenced  by  words  with  the  suffix  -IERA< 
-ARIA,  which  phonetically  gave  -AIRA. 

fiviera,  screw-auger.  The  word  seems  to  show  a  substitution  of 
-lERA  for  -ELA,  found  in  fivela,  clasp,  eyelet  (from  fibula),  in  which  the 
-ELA  was  taken  for  a  suffix. 

lardiera,  rope.  This  may  be  a  Prov.  formation  on  art,  rope-|- 
the  forceless  -lERA,  the  I  representing  agglutination  of  the  article. 
But  the  word  is  doubtful. 

madiera,  wood,  timber,  from  materia. 

maniera,  manner,  from  manuaria,  an  adjective  used  substantively. 

moduriera,  measure  for  grain. 

mosniera,  meaning  doubtful;    cf.  O.Fr.  mosnerie. 

neciera,  lack,  dearth,  from  necessaria  (see  Nouv.  Ess.,  114,  n.  2). 

pechiera,  jug,  pitcher,  from  picaria  (?). 

pcgulhiera,  dowry,  from  peculiaria  (?). 


Formation  of  Nouns  235 

As  the  adjective  suffix  was  used  very  frequently  in  Latin 
with  names  of  animals,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  names 
of  animals  in  the  list  of  adjectives  used  substantively:^ 

acerin,  steel  arrow  acier,  steel 

camelin,  a  kind  of  wool  stuff  camel,  camel 

Jacopin,  Jacobin  monk-  Jacop,  Jacob 

moresquin,  dark  brown  cloth  mores{c){1),  dark 

In  a  few  other  words  the  adjective  suffix  -IN  is 
added,  bringing  little  change  other  than  a  more  special- 
ized meaning.     Such  words  are: 

esportin,  a  kind  of  basket  esporta,  basket 

gorgeirin,  iron  collar  for  the  throat  gorgiera,  collar 

martrin,  skin  of  marten  martre,  skin  of  marten 

orfanin,  orphan  orfe{n),  orphan 

picotin,  a  measure  (for  grain)  picot,  a  measure  (for  grain) 

In  a  few  other  words  the  suffix  seems  to  denote  the 
agent.  This,  again,  looks  like  the  substantive  use  of  an 
adjective. 

baratin,  cheat  barat,  cheating 

draconin  (?),'  dragon-tamer  dragon,  dragon 

Added  to  a  preposition,  we  find  -IN  in: 
darreirin,  rear,  back  darreire,  behind 

Two  other  words  are  found  in  which  the  suffix  appears 
to  be  attached  to  the  present  participles  of  verbs: 

observantin,  Franciscan  observan{t),irovaobservar, observe 

querentin,\  beggar  queren{t),  from  querre,  seek 

1  See  examples  in  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  540.  Another  Prov.  word  of 
this  kind  is  cabrotin,  tanned  goatskin,  from  a  Lat.  caprotinus,  given  by 
Olcott,  202. 

'  For  description,  see  Du  Cange,  Jacohitae. 

3  Meyer-Liibke  classifies  this  as  a  diminutive. 


t  -IN  is  found  in  a  couple  of  words  of  foreign  origin:  botin,  booty, 
and  escavin,  sheriff,  alderman. 

More  obscure  words  are  bosin,  testicle;  estalsin,  outflow;  and  flain, 
a  kind  of  ship.    Lopin  may  be  a  borrowing  from  Fr.    See  lopin  in  Die.  Gen. 


236  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

-INA 

Besides  the  masculine  suffix  -IN,  we  find  also  the 
feminine  form  -INA  used  in  the  same  ways  as  -IN,  and 
also  in  some  others.  -INA  is  already  found  in  some 
Latin  words,  generally  added  to  verb-stems  with  abstract 
force,  as  in  ruina.  Joined  to  noun-stems  in  Latin,  it  seems 
to  have  given  little  change  to  the  simple  word,  as  in 
coUina  and  pedorina.  The  new  words  in  -INA  also,  often 
show  little  change  of  meaning,  the  -INA  in  these  cases 
appearing  to  have  had  adjectival  force  originally.  But 
another  development  of  meaning  arose  out  of  the  adjec- 
tival use  of  the  suffix — namely,  the  diminutive  idea.  As 
an  adjective  it  denoted  similarity,  and  from  this  use 
apparently  grew  the  idea  of  inferiority :  hence  the  diminu- 
tive meaning.  1  The  suffix  generallj^  has  this  force  in 
Romance,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  use  are  probably  to 
be  found  in  Vulgar  Latin.- 

The  following  words  in  which  the  suffix  is  added  to 
nouns  are  either  diminutive  or  show  little  change  from 
the  simple  word: 

hosquina,  hedge  bosc,  woods 

carina,  heart  cor,  heart 

cotina,  netting  cota,  coat 

crapaudina,^  precious  stone  crapaut,  toad 

enfantina,  young  girl  enfant,  child 

fantina,  young  girl  {en)fania,  girl 

mairina,  godmother  maire,  mother 

megina,  pluck  meg,  middle 

neblina,  mist  nebla,  mist 

pudisina,  stench  pudilz,  strong-smelling  plant 

J  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  540. 

2  Cooper,  141;    Olcott,  134. 

3  A  diminutive  of  crapaut,  because  the  stone  was  believed  to  have 
come  from  the  head  of  the  toad. 


Formation  of  Nouns  237 

serpentina,  kind  of  plant  serpen{t),  snake 

tetina,\  small  nipple  Ma,  nipple 

Cases  in  which  the  suffix  is  added  to  adjectives  are: 

crespina,  fringe  cresp,  curled 

salvatgina,  wild  beast  salvatge,  wild 

There  are  also  several  cases  of  -INA  in  which  it  is  cer- 
tainly nothing  but  the  feminine  form  of  an  adjective  used 
substantively.  -IN  was  a  suffix  often  added  to  names  of 
animals  to  form  adjectives,  and  these  words,  all  meaning 
skin  of  an  animal,  had  some  such  word  as  "skin"  understood : 

boquina,  buckskin  boc,  buck 

conina,  lebratina,^  rabbit  skin  conil,  lebrat,  rabbit 

martrina,  marten  skin  martre,  marten,  marten  skin 

Besides  all  the  above  cases,  there  is  one  more  use  of 

-INA  that  is  somewhat  different:    it  was  added  to  stems 

of  the  verbs  of  Germanic  origin  to  form  abstracts,  just 

as  to  Latin  stems  in  ruina.     Thus  are  found: 

aizina,  comfort  aizir,  welcome 

aplevina,^  security,  bail  plevir,  pledge 

>  See  double  sufRxes,  p.  384.     2  Yot  aplevina,  see  parasj'ntheta,  p.  528. 


t  There  are  several  words  ending  in  -INA,  and  having  no  correspond- 
ing simple  form,  which  may  be  explained  in  various  ways.  These  words 
are:  aigleniina,  arvina,  bergantina,  hozina,  cardairina,  floisina,  gevelina, 
jaina,  masmudina,  and  plovina. 

arvina,  grease<.arvina,  and  bozina,  inouth.<ibuccina,  are  clearly  Lat. 
formations,  and  plovina,  heavy  rain,,  is  probably  one  also.  Gevelina, 
javelin,  is  probably  a  Celtic  formation. 

aiglentina,  eglantine,  is  derived  from  *aiglent  (of.  O.Fr.  aiglent) , 
which  Murray  takes  to  come  from  aculentus,  needle-like.    See  "eglantine." 

bergantina,  shirt  of  mail,  is  probably  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Fr. 
brigandine,  i.e.,  derived  from  the  It.  brigante. 

cardairina  appears  to  be  another  form  of  cardoniera  (see  p.  2.30). 

floisina,  pillow-case,  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  appears  to  have  its 
source  in  the  Lat.  fliixina,  the  same  word  that  may  have  given  the  O. 
Fr.  floemie  and  the  Mod.  Fr.  flaine.     See  Melanges,  77. 

jaina  (also  jazena,  and  in  Du  Cange,  jayna),  small  beam,  appears  to 
come  from  a  Lat.  *jacina,  derived  from  the  classical  jdcere. 

masmudina,  a  coin  of  the  Almohades,  is  probably  derived  from  some 
form  of  "Mahomet." 


238 


Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 


arcina,  burning 

ataina,^  delay 

dessazina,  spoliation 

jazina,^  childbed 

■morina,"^  mortality,  epidemic 

revolvina,'^  refrain 

sazina,  seizure 


From    ars,    past    participle 
ardre  (?),  burn 

dessazir,  take  away  from 
jazer,  lie 
morir,  die 
revolver,  revolve 
sazir,  seize 


of 


-ION 

The  Provencal  suffix  -ION  has  its  source  in  the  Latin 
-10,  -lONIS.  Not  a  very  common  suffix  in  Provencal, 
as  compared  with  its  other  form  -O,  -ONIS,^  it  appears 
even  less  so  on  account  of  the  frequent  absorption  of  the 
i  by  the  preceding  consonant.'*     It  apppears  in: 


campion,  champion 
capion,  cowl 
carpion,^  carp 
enquestion,^  question 
plantion,"  planting 
plumion,  feather  bed  ( ?) 
promesion,  promise 
pruzion,]  itching 


camp,  field 
capa,  cape 

{enquesli,  call,  summons) 
planta  or  plantar,  plant  ( ?) 
pluma,  feather 
promesa,  promise 
pruzer,  itch 


1  Atnina  appears  to  be  a  verbal  substantive  built  on  atainar.  See 
p.  545. 

^Arcina,  jazina,  rnorina,  and  revolvina  are  founded  on  Lat.  verbs, 
just  as  was  ruina. 

'P.  243.  4  See  p.  251. 

5Carpa<Lat.  carpa  probably  existed.  If  not,  the  word  might  be 
an  imitation  of  the  It.  carpione. 

6  This  word  appears  to  be  only  the  prefix  EN-  +  question  (see 
p.  472) ,  though  from  its  form  it  might  be  from  enquesta,  inquest.  Question, 
which  has  the  suffix,  is,  of  course,  Lat. 

'  Levy  suggests  a  correction  to  plantation.  This  may  be  unneces- 
sary, however.     Pruzion,  if  a  Prov.  formation,  is  very  similar. 


t  Words  probably  of  Lat.  origin  are  mesion,  expenditure,  wager< 
missionem  ( ?),  and  pervezion,  provision,  which  seems  to  be  a  deformation 
of  provisionem. 


Formation  of  Nouns  239 

-isme,  -ista 

The  suffixes  -ISME  and  -ISTA  are  of  Greek  origin 
and  exist  only  in  learned  words.     -ISME  is  added  to 
nouns  to  form  abstracts,  as  in  the  other  languages;    never- 
theless, terreisme  seems  rather  to  have  collective  force: 
judaisme,  Judaism  Juda,  Judah 

terreisme,  land,  territory  terra,  land 

-ISTA  likewise  is  rare  in  Provencal.     It  is  added  to 
describe  the  occupation  of  a  person,  or  his  ideas  or  theories: 

decretista,^   decretalista,    authority 

on  canon  law 
legista,^  legist 

-IT 

The  Provengal  diminutive  suffix  -IT  is  extremely  rare, 
but  traces  of  it  are  still  found.  It  is  apparently  of  the 
same  origin  as  the  common  diminutive  suffix  -ET,  going 
back  probably  beyond  -ITTUS  to  the  adjective  suffix 
-ITUS.2  Besides  cabridet,  in  which  we  see  this  suffix -|- 
the  diminutive  -ITTUS,  there  are  two  other  words  in 
which  -ITUS,  used  alone,  shows  diminutive  force: 
auzelit,  little  bird  auzel,  bird 

hranquit,  little  branch  branc,  branch 

-OA 

Under  the  suffix  -OA,  the  following  words  may  be 

found,  perhaps  coming  from  a  Latin  -UUS: 

perdoa,  loss  perdre,  lose 

rendoa,  rent  rendre,  return 

segoa,  succession  segre,  follow 

vendoa,^\  sale  vendre,  sell 

1  Neither  of  these  words  is  a  real  Prov.  formation. 

2  For  a  treatment  of  the  development  of  -ITTUS,  see  note  to  the 
introduction  to  -ET,  its  usual  development  (p.  188). 

5  For  these  words,  see  Royyiania,  XXV,  392. 

fA  doubtful   word   is  metoa,    grimace   (?),   which   may  be  derived 
from  metre,  put,  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  words. 


240  Word-Formation  in  Proven(,'al 

-OIRA 

The  suffix  found  in  Provencal  as  -OIRA  represents 
the  Latin  -ORIA,  the  feminine  form  of  -ORIUS,  which 
will  be  treated  under  its  Proven^'al  development  of  -OR. 
This  suffix  -ORIUS,  -A,  -UM  was  added  to  the  stems  of 
past  participles,  giving  the  forms  -SORIUS  and  -TORIUS, 
the  latter  of  which  became  the  regular  suffix  to  be  added 
to  verb-stems,  and  together  with  the  stem-vowel  gave 
the  forms  -ADOR,  -ADOIRA,  and  -EDOR,  -EDOIRA, 
already  treated.  As  in  the  case  of  other  suffixes,^  the 
formations  on  the  verb-stem  became  much  more  numer- 
ous than  the  original  kind  of  formation  on  the  past  par- 
ticiple.    -OIRA  is  found  in  few  words  in  Provengal: 

esclauzoira,  sluice-gate  esclauza,  sluice-gate 

(No  verb  is  to  be  found  for  this  word,  but  one  probably  existed. 
There  is  no  change  in  meaning  from  that  of  the  simple  word.) 
esparsoira,  holy  water  sprinkler        esparser,  sprinkle 
fichoira,  three-pointed  fishhook  fichor,  fix 

fosoira,  bit  of  land  that  can  be  dug    fosar,  dig 

in  one  day- 
molsoira,^  milk-pail  molsa,^  froth,  foam 

The  suffix  was  originally  added  to  verb-stems  to  form 
adjectives,  but  the  substantive  use  of  the  feminine  and 
the  neuter  is  very  common. 

-OL,    -OLA 

There  are  a  few  words  in  Provencal  with  the  ending 
-OL,  -OLA,  which  is  purely  diminutive  in  force  when  it 
brings  any  change  in  meaning  to  the  simple  word.     The 

1  As,  for  example,  -URA,  on  p.  261,  below. 

2  Undoubtedly  this  word  shows  a  substantive  use  of  the  adjective 
in  the  phrase  "terra  fosoira." 

'Molsoira  seems  to  be  formed  directly  on  molsa,  though  *molsar 
may  have  existed. 


Formation  of  Nouns  241 

Latin  suffixes  from  which  the  Provengal  form  is  descended 
are  -EOLUS  and  -lOLUS,  or  -OLUS  (the  old  form  of 
-ULUS),  which  had  come  to  be  used  only  after  e  and 
i}  As  for  -ULUS  itself,  it  is  of  little  importance  as  a 
suffix  in  Provencal,  the  u  being  unaccented  and  con- 
sequently disappearing,  as  did  the  ii  in  -ACULUS.  The 
suffixes  -EOLUS  and  -lOLUS,  on  the  other  hand,  per- 
sisted, but  the  accent  shifted  from  the  e  and  the  i  to 
the  0,  the  e  being  treated  like  the  i,  which  developed 
as  a  ^/-element.  This  yod  seems  to  have  disappeared  in 
all  popular  words;  and  the  reason  for  this  seems  to  be 
a  confusion  in  the  case  of  fiUolus,  the  most  impor- 
tant Latin  example  of  the  suffix.  Taking  into  considera- 
tion the  shifting  of  the  accent,  filiolus  regularly  became 
filhol,  whereas  filius  became  filh.  The  suffix  that  is  added 
is  apparently  -OL,  and  the  word  through  its  common- 
ness could  serve  as  an  example  for  new  formations.  Since 
in  Classic  Latin  the  suffix  -OLUS  could  be  added  only 
to  stems  in  e  or  i,  we  find  not  only  the  suffixes  -EOLUS 
and  -lOLUS,  but  also  an  e  or  i  in  hiatus  in  the  simple 
word,  and  some  of  these  other  combinations  of  a  conso- 
nant+y  became  in  Provencal  simply  the  palatalized 
consonant,  as  7iy>n'.  This  also  might  help  bring  about 
the  usual  development  of  -lOLUS  to  -OL  in  Provencal. 
There  are  only  two  words  found  retaining  the  ^/-element — 
bestiola  and  camhriola,  the  former  of  which  is  of  Latin 
origin  and  the  latter  learned.  As  a  popular  diminutive 
of  cambra,  we  should  expect  cambrola. 

The  suffix,  however,  appears  never  to  have  been  much 
in  use  in  popular  formations,  there  being  a  number  of 
other  equally  useful  diminutive  forms  to  take  its  place. 
It  is  no  longer  used  in  forming  new  words  in  French. 

1  Die.  Gen.,  I,  53,  sec.  86. 


242 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


The  suffix  -OL  is  found  in  the  following  Provencal 
formations : 


albola,  white  baptismal  clothes 
aisola,^  small  ax 
bandola,  company,  party 
barbola,^  barbed  hook 
bresol,  cradle 
catnbriola,  small  room 
crucol,'^  pitcher 
estanhol,  small  pond 
flaujol,  small  flute;  also  deception 
flautol,  small  flute 
fogasol,^  small  buttered  roll 
lasol,  cord 
masola,  club 
mosola,  winter  wheat 
nuchola,  screech-owl 
orfanol,  orphan 

palhol,  childbed ;  woman  in  childbed 
pesol,  wool  remaining  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  web 
pezol,  pea 

plumasol,^  feather-broom  quill 
puojol,  hill 
ierso/,'t  male  falcon 


alba,^  alb 
aisa,  ax 
banda,  band 
barba,  beard 
bretz,  cradle 
cambra,  room 
cruga,  pitcher 
estanh,  pond 
flauja,  flute 
flauta,  flute 
fogasa,  buttered  roll 
latz,  string 
masa,  club 
mos,  moss  ( ?) 
nuch,  night 
orfe(n),  orphan 
palha,^  straw 
pes,  weight 

peze,  pea 
pluftna,  feather 
puoi,  hill 
tertz,  third 


For  words  in  -AIROL,  see  double  suffixes,  p.  399. 

1  Alba  in  Du  Cange  has,  however,  the  special  meaning  that  albola  has 
here. 

2  For  a  probable  Lat.  source,  see  Nouv.  Ess.,  162. 
'  See  Die.  Gen.,  introduction,  sec.  86. 

*  The  c  is  pecuHar  in  this  word.  Another  derivative  of  cruga  is 
crugon  (Hkewise  cruol).  Mod.  Prov.  has  both  cruco  and  crugo,  and  it 
would  appear  as  though  there  might  have  been  a  form  cruca  as  well  as 
cruga,  from  the  Germanic  k  in  kruka.  C  would  be  the  regular  develop- 
ment of  this  letter. 

6  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 

« Palha,  straw,  is  here  apparently  used  with  the  meaning  of  bed. 

'  Possibly  a  Lat.  formation.     See  Korting  (No.  9,488),  tertiolus. 

t  There  is  also  a  large  list  of  words  ending  in -OL(A)  not  formed 
in  Prov.  Many  of  them  are  simply  the  Prov.  forms  of  Lat.  words. 
The  list  is  as  follows:  auriol{a),  oriole;  arestol,  rest  for  a  lance;  hestiola, 
small  animal;   bredola,  footstool;  bretol,  vain  hope(?);    brufol,  buffalo; 


Formation  of  Nouns  243 

-ON 

The  Provencal  suffix  -ON  is  one  that  must  be  divided 
and  subdivided  a  good  deal  in  order  to  show  all  of  its 
meanings  and  changes  of  meaning.  The  Latin  suffix 
-ONE,  from  which  it  is  derived,  seems  to  have  been  rather 
vague  in  meaning  and  use,  for  not  only  do  we  find  -ON 
added  indiscriminately  to  nouns  and  to  verbs,  but  its 
meanings  are  different  in  the  various  languages  in  which 
it  is  used,  its  principal  use  in  most  of  them  being  augmen- 


camola,  boreworm;  capsola,  small  box:  caupOl,  a  kind  of  ship;  dragol, 
dragon;  espol,  spool;  faisola,  belt,  band;  fongol,  fungus;  framola,  jaw; 
grifol,  fountain;  malhol,  vine,  cutting;  mezol,  marrow,  pith;  mojol,  beaker; 
naujol,  tedium;  niola,  uvula;  nozol,  kind  of  bird;  orsol,  pitcher;  pairol, 
kettle;  pampol,  vine-branch;  parvol,  child;  pegola,  pitch;  pibol,  poplar, 
poplar  wood. 

Of  these  words,  in  auriol,  bestiola,  capsola,  faisola,  fongol,  malhol, 
mezol,  mojol,  orsol,  pairol,  parvol,  and  pegola,  the  Lat.  originals  aureolus, 
bestiola,  capsula,  fasciola,  fungulus,  malleolus,  medulla,  modiolus,  urceolus, 
*pariolum  (Korting,  No.  6,872),  parvulus,  and  picula  are  sufficiently 
obvious,  though  it  must  be  noted  that  simple  words  capse,  fais,  fonge, 
malh,  orsa,  parv,  and  pega  exist  in  Prov.  beside  the  ones  with  the  suffix, 
and  that  parvol  is  an  adjective  used  substantively.  Other  words  of  Lat. 
origin,  whose  source  is  not  quite  so  obvious,  are  bredola,  iootstooK  j)redella 
(see  Diez,  391) ,  brufol,  buffalo,  from  *bufalus  (Class.  Lat.  bubalus) ,  in  which 
the  penultimate  syllable  appears  to  have  been  dropped  and  incorrectly 
replaced  (cf.  Fr.  bouffle);  caupol,  a  kind  of  shipK  caupulus  (see  Du  Cange) ; 
camola,  hoveworTn.<i*camulus,  from  camur,  bent,  curved;  niola,  uvula, 
which  appears  to  spring  from  a  confusion  between  uvula  and  ligula  (see 
Essais, Z27),  pampoZ,  vine-branch,  from  pampinus,  vine-branch;  and  pibol, 
poplar Kpopulum.  In  most  of  these  words  the  accent  has  shifted  in  the 
Lat.  word,  and  there  have  been  other  changes.  Arestol,  rest  for  a  lance, 
appears  to  be  formed  on  the  noun  resta,  rest,  either  parasynthetically 
(see  below)  or  possibly  through  the  medium  of  the  verb  arestar.  The  a 
might,  however,  be  due  only  to  agglutination  of  the  article,  in  which  case 
the  word  would  be  a  suffix-formation  and  belong  here. 

Of  the  remaining  words,  dragol  and  grifol  seem  to  show  substitutions 
of  -OL  for  -ON  in  dragon  and  grifon;  espol  probablj^  comes  from  the 
Germanic  spuolo  (see  "spool"  in  Murray);  naujol,  tedium,  appears  to 
come  from  a  dialect  form  nauja  [(instead  of  nauza),  from  nausea]  -{--Oh; 
nozol;  a  kind  of  bird,  given  as  a  type  of  ugliness,  may  be  nuchola,  changed 
through  association  with  nozer,  injure;  bretol,  vain  hope  (?),  is  doubtful 
even  in  form,  and  framola,  jaw,  is  obscure. 


244  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

tative,  whereas  it  is  the  opposite  force — diminutive — 
that  is  common  in  Provencal,  where  the  augmentative 
force  is  unknown.  In  many  words  in  Latin,  then,  the 
suffix  must  have  added  Httle  to  the  original  word,  as  is 
still  the  case  in  many  words  in  Provengal.  The  suffix 
was  particularly  common  in  the  vulgar  language,  as 
Cooper  and  Olcott  seem  to  agree,  but  it  seems  to  have 
had  various  and  rather  ill-defined  meanings.  Olcott^ 
gives  four  with  which  it  is  found  in  the  inscriptions: 
(1)  titles  of  religion  and  civic  government;  (2)  mili- 
tary terms;  (3)  trades  and  occupations;  (4)  terms  of 
abuse;  yet  none  of  these  meanings  can  be  said  to  be  com- 
mon in  Provengal,  if  found  at  all  there.  Meyer-Liibke^ 
says  that  -ONE  in  Latin  served  to  individualize,  and 
was  added  to  nouns  to  denote  the  person  who  performed 
an  action  with  particular  predilection,  or  who  is  noticed 
by  his  occupation.  All  of  these  uses,  therefore,  are  to 
form  names  of  persons,  which,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been 
the  most  important  use  of  the  suffix.^  In  Provengal, 
nevertheless,  as  also  in  French,  the  names  of  persons  with 
the  suffix  are  rare,  and  those  that  are  found  are  not 
formed  by  the  addition  of  -ON,  but  instead,  -ON  is  added 
to  some  simple  word  denoting  the  name  of  a  person, 
either  to  give  it  diminutive  force  or  else  without  per- 
ceptible change  of  meaning.  The  total  disappearance  of 
-ON  as  a  suffix  forming  names  of  persons  is  worthy  of 
note,  but  might  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  tre- 
mendous extension  of  the  more  specific  -lER,  from 
-ARIUS.  The  uses  of  -ON  which  have  persisted  in  Pro- 
vengal may  all  be  developments  of  the  original   vague 

iP.  83.  2  11,543. 

'  For  a  detailed  treatment  of  the  names  of  persons  formed  by  use  of 
the  suffix,  see  Fisch,  Nomina  Personalia  auf  -0,  -ONIS. 


Formation  of  Nouns  245 

tendency  toward  individualization.  Although  there  are 
few  new  names  of  persons  with  -ON,  the  suffix  is  some- 
what commoner  with  names  of  animals,  many  of  these 
showing  diminutive  force,  and  many  others  no  change  in 
meaning.  In  the  names  of  things  formed  on  nouns,  there 
is  exactly  the  same  distinction,  which  seems  to  be  a 
Romance  development,  being  rare  in  Latin — the  suffix 
has  either  diminutive  force  or  adds  little  to  the  meaning 
of  the  word.  Like  -EL,  for  example,  and  other  diminu- 
tives, the  suffix  was  frequently  used  to  designate  objects 
in  common  use,  and  this  usage  continued  in  Romance 
beside  the  forming  of  diminutives  in  some  languages  and 
of  augmentatives  in  others — processes  growing  out  of  the 
original  use. 

The  names  of  persons  will  be  given  first,  then  the 
names  of  animals,  and  finally  the  names  of  things. 

I.     Names  op  Persons 

a)    SHOWING   LITTLE    CHANGE   IN   MEANING 

cuscon,^  rascal,  servant  cusc,  rascal 

fricon,^  fool  fric,  fool 

geldon,  infantry  gelda,  infantry 

guidon,  guide  guida,  guide 

mainaton,  child  mainat,  child 

masclon,^  male  mascle,  male 

b)    DIMINUTIVES 

donzelon,  young  page  donzel,  page 

enf anion,  small  child  enfanit),  child 

filhon,  little  son  filh,  son 

mastron,  young  master,  dude  mastre,  master 

1  In  cusc  and  cuscon,  fric  and  fricon,  probably  two  forms  of  the  same 
word  are  represented.  Cusc  probably  comes  from  a  Lat.  coctio,  and 
cuscon  from  its  accusative,  cociionem.  In  the  case  of  fric  and  fricon, 
Levy,  under  the  word  fricon,  gives  a  reference  to  Raynouard,  and  the 
example  cited  gives  fric  and  not  fricon.  This  survival  of  both  forms  is 
seen  in  other  words,  as  companh  and  companhon,  bar  and  baron. 


t  Another  word,  pairon,  is  from  the  Lat.  patronus. 


246 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


C)    UNCLASSIFIED 

fcasc/o/i,  guide,  pilot  (?);  highway-     (possibly  from  a  Basque  stem 

man  and  formed  on  an  adjective) 

fricon,^  young  man  fric,  young 

II.     Names  of  Animals 

a)    SHOWING   LITTLE    CHANGE   IN   MEANING 


anhelon,  lamb 

aurion,  kind  of  eagle;  suffix- 
change  for  auriol  ( ?) 

creston,  see  formations  on  verbs, 
p.  250 

erison,  see  formations  on  verbs, 
p.  250 

lampredon,  lamprey 

vibron,'\  viper 


anhel,  lamb 


lampre{d)a,  lamprey 
vibra,  viper 


b)    DIMINUTIVES 


aiglon,  eaglet 

cavalon,  picket,  tent-pole  ( ?) 

fedon,  lamb 

galon,-  little  hen 

goson,  pug-dog 

moisalon,  small  mosquito 

nadon,  young  (of  an  animal) 

orson,  young  bear 

paseron,  small  sparrow 

simion,  young  monkey 

tridon,  young  tiger 


aigla,  eagle 
caval,  horse 
feda,  sheep 
gal,  cock 
90S,  dog 

moisala,  mosquito 
nat,  (thing)  born 
ors,  bear 
pasera,  sparrow 
simi,  monkey 
trida,  tiger 


>  See  fricon  in  the  preceding  list. 

2  Here  the  suffix  seems  to  change  a  mascuHne  noun  to  feminine  as 
well  as  to  add  diminutive  force. 


t  The  words  ending  in  -ON  denoting  animals,  not  formed  in  Prov. 
are:  corgozon,  furon,  gorgolhon,  grifon,  and  garanhon.  The  first  four 
seem  to  be  of  Lat.  origin: 

corgozon,  a  kind  of  insect<  *corcociMS  (derived  from  corcus)  -|-suffix. 

furon,  ferret</uro,  onis.     See  Romania,  XXXV,  174. 

gorgolhon,  corn-wormK  curc^dionem.     See  Korting,  No.  2,699. 

grifon,  gryphenK gryphus  +suffix.     See  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  XXII,  49. 

garanhon,  stallion,  seems  to  conic  from  a  Germ,  wrango.  See  Kor- 
ting, No.  10,414. 


FOKMATION    OF   NoUNS 


247 


III.     Names  of  Things 

a)    SHOWING   LITTLE   CHANGE   IN    MEANING 


bacon,  trough,  hod 
banaston,  basket,  hamper 
bolon,  counterweight 
caison,  box,  chest 
canon,  pipe,  reed 
carton,  quarter,  piece 
coston,  slope 
creison,  cress 
descon,  basket 
faron,^  signal-hght 
flascon,  bottle 
fondon,  depth 
gafon  (?),  hook 
gambaizon,  stuffed  doublet 

geneston,  dyer's  broom 
gonelon,-  gown 
laton,  lath 

malicion,  wickedness 
manton,  mantle 
mezolhon,  marrow 
polejon,  reel  on  crossbow 
popelon,  nipple 
valhon,\  valley 


{bac,  bowl,  in  Mistral) 

banasla,  basket 

bola,  ball 

caisa,  box 

cana,  reed 

cart,  quarter 

costa,  slope,  hill 

creis,  cress 

desc,  basket 

far,  signal-hght,  tower 

flasc,  bottle 

fon,  depth 

gafa,  hook 

gambais,    stuffed    doublet;    a 

material 
genesta,  broom 
gonela,  gown 
lata,  lath 

malicia,  wickedness 
manta,  mantle 
mezolh,  marrow 
poleja,  reel  on  crossbow 
popel,  nipple 
valh,  valley 


6)    DIMINUTIVES 

blizamlon,  dim.  of  blizaut  blizaut,  an  undergarment 


boison,  hedge 
castelon,  small  castle 
escanhon,  small  bench 
esclapon,  chip,  splinter 

1  See  also  faraon  in  n.  f.  P-  249. 

2  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 


bosc  (bois),  woods 
castel,  castle 
escanh,  bench 
esclap,  log 


t  A  word  of  interest  of  Lat.  origin  is  faichon,  face.  It  apparently 
comes  from  /actionem,  whose  regular  development  would  be  faison, 
which  is  likewise  found.  The  spelling  faichon  is  given  by  Levy  in  one  of 
the  examples  under  faison,  which  is  given  with  a  number  of  meanings, 
of  which  "face,"  "form"  is  one.  Faicha  and  fachon  look  like  dialect 
forms. 


248 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


escudelon,^  snuill  bowl 

esparron,^  stake;  a  kind  of  cord 

esporton,  small  basket 

falson,  sickle 

ferraion,  dim.  oi  ferraia 

fivelon,^  bodkin 

formatjon,  small  cheese 

girlon,  small  pail 

jupon,  petticoat 

lanson,  small  lance 

lardon,  slice  of  bacon 

madaison,  small  skein 

moralhon*  clasp 

monlon,  heap,  pile 

moscalhon,*  small  fly 

olhon,  small  eye 

orion,  small  garden 

padenon,  small  pan 

paiseron,^  small  barrier 

paston,  bit  of  pastry 

penon,  banner 

platon,  small  plate 

pochon,]  measure  for  fluids 


escudel,  bowl 

esparra,  cross  bar 

esporla,  basket 

fals,  scythe 

ferraia,  field  lying  fallow 

fivela,  clasp,  buckle 

formatge,  cheese 

gerla,  basket,  hamper 

jiip,  skirt 

lansa,  lance 

lart,  bacon 

madaisa,  skein 

moralha,  horse-twitchers 

mon{t),  mountain 

mosca,  fly 

olh,  eye 

ort,  garden 

padena,  pan 

paisiera,  barrier 

pasta,  paste 

jiena,  feather 

plata,  plate 

pocha,  pocket 


A  few  words  meaning  things  cannot  be  classified  in 
either  of  the  above  groups.  The  tendency  toward  indi- 
viduaHzation  is  seen  in  these  words,  but  they  can  hardly 
be  classed  as  pure  diminutives. 

I  See  double  suffixes,  p.  383  and  p.  399,  n.  ftt- 

'  The  Httle  Levy  lists  two  distinct  Prov.  words,  one  masculine  and 
one  feminine,  having  these  two  meanings,  whereas  the  larger  work 
gives  esparron  only  once.  It  would  appear  possible,  however,  for  a  word 
derived  from  esparra,  which  has  only  one  meaning,  to  acquire  both  the 
meanings  given  above. 

3  The  fivelon  seems  to  be  the  pin  of  the  buckle,  whereas  the  fivela 
apparently  was  the  whole  buckle. 

^  See  double  suffixes,  p.  400. 

t  In  -ALHON,  besides  the  words  given  above,  there  are  also  meda- 
Ihon,  haystack;  pabalhon,  tent,  and  parpalhon,  butterfly.  Both  of  the  last 
two  words  are  from  the  Lat.  papalionen,  butterfly.  The  meaning  of 
"tent"  is  a  later  development.  As  for  medalhon,  it  seems  to  be  derived 
from  m,e(z)alha,  mesh. 


Formation  of  Nouns  249 

C)    UNCLASSIFIED 

hrazon,  upper  part  of  the  arm  hratz,  arm 

doblon,  double  candle  dohle,  double 

estalon,  pillar,  post  estal,  place 

granhon,  grape  granh,  grain 

linhon,  thread  linha,  line 

liuradon,^  measure  of  \  of  bushel  liurada,  pound 

peiron,  flight  of  steps  pcira,  stone 

randon,'^  impetuosity  randa,  firmness 

toalho?i,-f  towel  toalha,  tablecloth 

So  far,  the  words  listed  have  been  formed  on  nominal 

stems,  and  all  of  the  words,  with  the  exception  of  fricon, 

have  been  clear  formations  on  Provencal  nouns.     There 

are   also,  however,  some  words  formed  on  verb-stems. 

>  See  double  suffixes,  p.  384. 

2  Cf.  the  O.Fr.  randon,  which  the  Die.  Gen.  derives  from  randir. 
In  Prov.,  however,  the  noun  randa,  of  Germ,  origin,  is  found,  and  is  the 
probable  base- word. 

t  Other  words  ending  in  -ON,  but  not  having  the  Pi'ov.  suffix,  are 
as  follows: 

aranhon,  wild  plum.     See  Mistral,  aragnoun. 

aviron,  tiller  =prefix  A--{-viron.     See  prefix-formation,  p.  464,  below. 

bodoison,  rascal;  stopper;  excrement.  These  meanings  are  given 
in  Mistral,  under  boudissoun.  The  word  is  very  obscure.  It  seems  to 
have  some  connection  with  the  Fr.  bouchon,  but  just  what  is  not  clear. 

bordon,  sta,fi<iburdo,  onis. 

cairaton,  a  kind  of  ship.     From  cairat  {carat),  four-cornered  block. 

carriaton.     Obscure  both  in  form  and  meaning. 

darbon,  mole.     From  Lat.  darpus.     See  Romania,  XXXV,  172. 

esponton,  a  kind  of  spear.  Cf.  It.  sjnmtone,  derived  from  spuntare 
<expunctare.    See  Korting,  No.  3,471.   ^.spore^ar  may  have  existed  in  Prov. 

faraon,  signal-light.  From  the  Gr.  <;)opos,  an  island  with  a  light- 
tower,  giving  far  in  Prov.  and  the  derived  form  faron  (see  above). 
It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  form  faraon  except  as  having  been  influ- 
enced by  Faraon,  Pharaoh,  though  the  connection  is  not  very  clear. 
It  may  possibly  be  with  the  pillar  of  fire  that  helped  Moses  to  escape 
Pharaoh.    Faros  and  farot  (see  -OT,  below)  are  other  forms  of  the  word. 

flaon,  flaiizon,  flat  cake.  From  an  OHG  flado  (see  Korting,  No. 
3,806).  FZaow  is  the  regular  form.  Ftow^on  appears  to  show  the  influ- 
ence of  flauza,  white  cinder,  if  not  directly  derived  from  it. 

gofon,  hinge,  hook.  Apparently  written  for  gafon,  from  gnfar  (see 
below),  under  the  influence  of  gomphus,  hinge. 

lauron,  spring  on  a  level  with  the  ground.  See  Romania,  I,  G6,  and 
Mistral. 


250  Word-Formation  in  Provenc^al 

Here,  the  words  denoting  persons  and  animals  are  rare, 
and  it  is  the  words  denoting  things,  especially  the  instru- 
ment of  an  action,  as  in  the  other  verbal  suffixes  -ADOR 
and  -ALH,  that  are  commonest. 

The  division  into  words  denoting  persons,  animals, 
and  things  will  be  made  in  the  verbal  as  w^ell  as  in  the 
nominal  formations. 

I.     Names  of  Persons 

As  for  the  names  of  persons,  there  seem  to  be  only 

two  possible  formations  on  verbs: 

predon,  robber  predar,  prey  on 

sulhon,  slut,  scullion  sulhar,  soil 

II.  Names  of  Animals 

There  are  also  three  names  of  animals  with  the  ending : 

creston,  castrated  lamb  crestar,  castrate 

erison,  hedgehog  erisar,  stand  erect 

pepion,  dove  pepiar,  chirp 

III.  Names  of  Things 

The  names  of  things  generally  denote  the  instrument 

with  which  to  perform  the  action  indicated  by  the  verb: 

corchon,  piece  of  bread  corchar,  cut 

(Here  the  meaning  is  not  that  of  the  instrument,  but  rather  the 
result  of  the  action  of  cutting.) 
escarrason,  litter,  pole-ladder ;  iron     escarrasar,  card  wool 

carder^  ( ?) 
escoson,  thresher,  flail  (escosar  is  not  to  be  found   in 

Raynouard  or  Levy,  but  it 
probably  existed.  Cf.  escos- 
ser  in  Old  French) 

1  For  his  translation  of  pole-ladder,  Levy  cites  Mistral,  who  has: 
"  escalassoun,  escarrassou  =  rancher,  echelier;  echalas  de  vigne;  civiere, 
etc."  Mistral  also  has,  however:  " escarrasso,  escardasso,  escarnasso 
(It.  scardassi)  =drouseUe,  grosse  carde  de  fer,  dont  on  se  sert  pour  cotn- 
mencer  le  cardage."  In  the  passage  cited  in  Levy,  either  translation  is 
possible,  but  the  second  is  the  only  one  showing  any  connection  with  the 
verb  escarrassar.  The  word  meaning  "ladder "  is  probably  an  augmenta- 
tive of  *cscarras  (cf.  the  Fr.  echalas<.*echaraciu?n). 


Formation  of  Nouns  251 

esparson,  holy  water  sprinkler  esparser,  sprinkle 

estaon,  support;   chain  estar,  stand 

estiron,  furrow  estirar,  stretch  out 

fison,  dart,  sticker  fisar,  stick  on,  prick 

gafon,  hook  gafar,  fasten,  seize 

guinhon,  eyebrows  guinnar,  wink 

picon,  small  pickax  picar,  prick 

jrizon,  pestle  of  mortar  pezar,  crush 

prenhon,  foetus  prenhar,  impregnate 

This  concludes  the  hst  of  words  the  source  of  whose 
suffix  is  the  Latin  -O,  -ONIS.^ 

For  -AIRON,  see  double  suffixes,  p.  399. 

As  under  the  heading  -ON,  however,  all  the  words 

having  this  ending,  whatever  be  its  source,   should   be 

grouped,  it  is  necessary  to  mention  another  set  of  words 

coming  from  a  Latin  -10,  -lONIS.     The  word-lists   in 

Cooper  and  Olcott  give  the  words  with  the  two  kinds  of 

endings  in  the  same  lists,  showing  the  same  kind  of  use, 

and  in  Provencal,  words  the  source  of  whose  suffix   is 

-10,  are  sometimes  found  with  the  ending  -ON.     This 

occurred  whenever   the   preceding   consonant   formed   a 

combination  to  absorb  the  ^-element.     Thus  we  find  the 

folloA\ang  words  coming  from  -10,  -lONIS: 

enfanson,  child  enfan{t),  child 

escuson,  small  shield  escut,  shield 

peison,^-\  fish  peis,  fish 

1  This  does  not  include,  of  course,  the  words  ending  in  -TIONE 
added  to  verb-stems,  which,  together  with  the  stem-vowel  of  the  verb, 
have  been  treated  under  the  forms  -AZON,  -EZON,  -IZON,  pp.  165  fT. 
Nevertheless,  this  abstract  -TIONE  gives  some  words  ending  in  -ON 
in  Prov.  Thus  faison< /actionem  and  derezemson,  redemption,  which 
seems  to  come  from  de  redemptione. 

2  The  words  in  the  other  languages,  poisson,  piscione,  etc.,  would 
seem  to  point  to  the  existence  of  a  piscionem  in  Lat.,  though  peison  is 
apparently  formed  in  Prov. 

tAlso  of  Lat.  origin  are  parson,  part,  from  partitionem  (?),  and 
tronson,  fragment,  from  truncionem.  Companhon  beside  companh  looks 
like  a  Prov.  formation,  but  is  simply  an  interesting  case  of  the  survival 
of  the  nominative  as  well  as  the  accusative  case,  both  words  going  back 
to  companio,  -onis.     See  p.  245,  n.  1. 


252  Word-Formation  in  Provenc;al 

There  are  also  a  few  words  in  which  the  i  of  the 
suffix  was  not  absorbed,  thus  giving  the  suffix  -lON.^ 

-OR 

-OR,  the  Provengal  suffix,  is  descended  from  the  Latin 
-OR,  -ORIS,  and  is,  Hke  the  latter,  used  in  forming  ab- 
stracts, although  not  nearly  as  common  as  the  longer 
forms  -AMEN,  -ANSA,  and  -ATGE.  Cooper  says  that 
words  in  -OR  were  characteristic  of  elevated  style,  and 
therefore  not  numerous  in  Vulgar  Latin,  and  found  in 
very  few  new  words.^  Like  most  abstracts,  the  Latin 
words  in  -OR  were  formed  by  adding  the  suffix  to  verb- 
stems,  and  there  are  in  Provengal  some  formations  of 
the  kind;  but  the  more  usual  process  was  the  formation 
of  new  words  on  adjectives.  Albor,  dawn,  found  in 
Latin,  and  apparently  built  on  albus,  white,  would  give  a 
starting-point  for  such  formations. 

Words  in  which  -OR  is  added  to  adjectives: 

agror,  sharpness  agre,  sharp 

baudor,  gaiety;  boldness  baut,  gay;  bold 

belor,  beauty  bel,  beautiful 

brunor,  brownness  brun,  brown 

dolsor,  sweetness  dols,  sweet 

eslrechor,  narrowness  esirech,  narrow 

feror,  wildness  fer,  wild,  fierce 

folor,  folly  fol,  foolish 

Jortor,  strength  fort,  strong 

frescor,  freshness  fresc,  fresh 

gramor,  chagrin  gram,  sad 

grevor,  pain,  injury  greu,  painful 

grosor,  thickness  gros,  thick 

largor,  extent  larc,  broad 

longor,  length  lone,  long 

negror,  blackness,  affliction  negre,  black 
pigror,  annoyance  (?),  disadvan-     pigre,  surly,  annoyed;  lazy 
tage(?) 

>  See  p.  2.38.  =  Cooper,  25. 


Formation  of  Nouns  253 

ricor,  nobility,  power  ric,  noble,  powerful 

rosor,  redness  ros,  red 

santor,  sanctity  sant,  saintly 

tendror,  tenderness  tendre,  tender 

tristor,  sadness  triste,  sad 

velhor,  old  age  velh,  old 

verdor,  greenness  vert,  green 

The  formations  on  verbs  are  as  follows : 

afeor,  height  a/sar,  raise.     Cf.  Sp.  alzar<*al- 

tiare,  Fr.  hausser 

blasmor,  blame  blasmar,  blame 

cremor,  burning  cremar,  burn 

cridor,  uproar  cridar,  crj' 

doptor,  doubt  doptar,  doubt 

fonsor,  depth  fonsar,  bury,  dig 

iror,  fury,  rage  ,        {irar  [  ?],i  rage,  rave) 

lauzor,  praise  lauzar,  praise 

leujor,     wantonness;     lightening,     leujar,  lighten 
relief 

lezor,-  leisure  lezer,  be  at  leisure  (infinitive  is 

found  only  as  noun) 

luzor,^  light  of  the  eyes  luzir,  shine 

pendor,  incUnation  pendre,  hang 

pezor,  weight  pezar,  weigh 

pruzor,  itching  pruzer,  itch 

ratihor,  pillage  raubar,  rob,  plunder 

sobror,  superiority  sobrar,  subjugate 

sostror,  depreciation  sostrar,  lower,  depreciate 

trigor,^\  delay  trigar,  delay 

Many  of  the  words  in  the  above  list  could,  from  their 
appearance,  be  formed  as  well  on  a  simple  noun  as  on  a 

1  There  is  a  past  participle  iVa«Lat.  iralus,  and  there  is  a  compound 
azirar.     These  things  make  a  simple  verb  *irar  seem  possible. 

"-  Beside  lezor  and  luzor  exist  two  other  interesting  forms,  legor 
and  lugor.  These  words  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  suffix  -OR 
was  added  to  the  Lat.  stems  lee  and  luc.  The  other  words,  on  the  other 
hand,  lezer  and  luzor,  seem  to  point  to  a  later  addition  of  the  suffix.  Still, 
formations  on  lezer  and  luzir  in  Prov.  beside  the  rarely  used  legor  and 
lugor  would  not  be  im*possible. 


t  Also  of  Lat.  origin,  frior<f rigor  em. 


254  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

verb,  but  as  the  Latin  process  in  the  ease  of  this  suffix 
was  the  addition  to  verb-stems,  which  is  the  regular 
process  for  the  formation,  of  abstracts  in  Provencal,  it 
seems  natural  to  suppose  that  in  these  cases  also  the 
verb  was  the  source.  In  the  case  of  iror,  the  noun  ira< 
Latin  ira  exists,  whereas  the  verb  irar  is  uncertain.  It 
probably  existed,  however,  though  irat  may  come  from 
iratus,  the  past  participle  of  irasci.  Testor,  extremity,  and 
brumor,  mist,  are  somewhat  puzzling,  being  apparently- 
derived  from  testa,  head,  and  hruma,  mist,  without  any 
verb  intervening. 

There  is  another  suffix  -OR  in  Provencal  which  cannot 
come  from  the  Latin  -OR,  but  must  represent  -ORIUM, 
the  neuter  form  of  -ORIA,  which  has  been  treated  above 
under  -OIRA.^  The  cases  of  -OR  with  this  meaning, 
however,  are  far  from  numerous.  In  most  cases  the 
form  found  represents  -A-DOR  from  -A-TORIUM.2 

Cases  of  -OR: 

fosor,  hoe,  mattock  fosar,  dig.     Cf.    also    the    femi- 

nine   form    fosoira    (p.    240, 
above) 
prezor,  rennet  pres^  (past  participle  of  pTcndre, 

grasp) 
(A  peculiar  word  given  in  Levy  is  leudor,  raiser  of  the  leiida,  a 
tax,  but  it  is  given  with  a  question-mark,  with  lender  =  leudier  sug- 
gested as  a  correction,  which  seems  probable.  Fachor,  which  looks 
like/ac/i-|— OR,  is,  of  course,  only  a  development  of  the  Latin /acior. 
Escosor,  thresher,  probably  comes  from  a  Latin  excussor*  and  mesor, 
reaper,  harvester,  from  the  Latin  messor.) 

Still  another  class  of  words  ending  in  -OR  must  be 
mentioned,  although  in  these  words  no  Latin  suffix  is 

1  See  p.  240.  '  See  p.  36. 

3  Or  possibly  formed  on  a  Lat.  *presus  (Classic  Lat.  prensus).  Cf. 
the  Fr.  presure. 

*  See  Du  Cange.  Fosor  is,  therefore,  the  only  real  example  of  the 
suffix  -ORIUM,  and  that  is  found  beside  the  feminine  form  in  -OIRA. 


Formation  of  Nouns  255 

represented.  Instead  of  a  suffix  it  is  a  trace  of  a  case- 
ending  that  is  found  here — that  of  the  genitive  plural 
orum  of  the  second  declension.  It  is  not  strange,  there- 
fore, that  most  of  these  words  have  collective  force, 
being  originally  plural,  nor  is  it  surprising  that  many  of 
them  are  really  adjectives,  for  if  paganor  meant  "of  the 
pagans,"  it  was  equivalent  to  the  adjective  pagan.  It 
is,  on  the  contrary,  the  use  as  nouns  that  is  new,  being 
one  of  the  usual  substantive  uses  of  adjectives.  New 
formations  are  rare.  For  convenience,  the  whole  list 
will  be  given  here: 

angilor,  angels  angel,  angel 

calendar,  Christmas  calend,  calend 

companhor,  companions  cotnpanh,  companion 

comtor,^  rank  after  viscount  ( ?)  comte,  count 

crestianor,  Christians  crestian.  Christian 

enfernor,  of  hell  enfern,  hell 

erbor,  herbs  erba,  herb 

marlror,  feast  of  the  martyrs  martyr,  martyr 

nadalor,  Christmas  nadal,  Christmas 

paganor,  land    of    pagans  (?)    or  pagan,  pagan 

pagandom 

parentor,  relations,  race,  family  paren{t),  parent 

pascor,  spring  pasca,  Easter 

tenebror,  darkness  tenebre,  darkness 
vavasor,  vassal  of  a  vassal  {vassus 

vassorum) 

-OT 

Belonging  to  the  same  group  of  diminutive  suffixes 
as  -AT,  -ET,  and  -IT,  is  -OT,  from  -OTTUS,  somewhat 
more  usual  than  -IT,  though  not  nearly  so  much  so  as 

'  It  is  difficult  to  state  from  which  of  the  three  sources  of  the  Prov. 
suffix  -OR  the  ending  of  this  word  comes.  Its  meaning  is  tolerably 
clear  from  the  example  "corns,  vescoms,  ni  conitors"  (Raynouard,  II, 
453).  comtor  appears  to  come  from  some  such  phrase  as  comes 
comitorum,  due  to  the  analogy  of  vassus  vassorurn  ('^vavasor)  and  imi- 
tating the  genitive  plural  in  -ORUM,  already  found  in  so  many  words. 
See  Du  Cange,  comitores. 


256 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


the  commoner  form  -ET.  The  use  of  the  suffix  is  clear 
enough,  giving  diminutive  force  every  time  that  it  adds 
anything  to  the  meaning  of  a  word.  It  was  regularly 
added  to  nouns,  and  probably  in  Provencal  to  nothing 
but  nouns,  though  in  French  there  seem  to  be  cases  in 
which  it  was  added  to  verb-stems.  The  list  of  forma- 
tions on  nouns  follows: 


cabot,  bullet-head  (fish) 

cabrot,  goat 

calota,  little  cap 

da-pot,  rabbit-hutch 

coisot,  leg  (of  beef) 

cubelot,  small  cask 

dagot,  small  dagger 

farot,^  light  tower 

falsot,  garden  knife 

filhot{a),  small  son  or  daughter 

gabarrot,  small  freight  ship 

gafot,^  hook 

galiot,  outlaw,  galley-slave 

garrot,  crossbow,  stick 

lansol,  lance 

mercerot,  little  mercer 

nasot,  small  bow-net,  weir 

ostalot,  small  house 

palota,  small  shovel 

pegot,  pitch-torch 

pelot,  shell,  bark 

picot,  measure  for  wine 

pipot,  small  cask 

plasotf'f  small  square 

J  See  also  faron  and  gafon,  p. 


cap,  head 
cobra,  goat 
cola,  cap 

clap,  heap  of  stones 
coisa,  thigh 
cubel,  cask 
daga,  dagger 
far,  Ught  tower 
fals,  scythe 
filh{a),  son,  daughter 
gabarra,  (freight  ship)  Ughter 
gafa,  hook 
galea,  galley 
garra  (?),  leg 
lansa,  lance 
mercier,  mercer 
nasa,  weir 
oslal,  house 
pala,  shovel 
pega,  pitch 
pel,  skin 
(pic,  pike) 
pipa,  cask 
plasa,  square 
247. 


t  Other  words,  ending  in  -OT,  but  not  formed  in  Prov.  bj^  means  of 
this  suffix,  are: 

alcavot,  arcabot,  pimp,  from  the  Arabic  al-qauvach.  See  Romania, 
XXXIV,  197. 

angelot,  sarcocoUa,  from  an  Arabic  anzarot.     See  Nouv.  Ess.,  161. 

egot,  flowing  away,  which  looks  like  a  post-verbal  noun  derived  from 
*egotar,  which  may  be  assumed.  Cf.  the  Fr.  egoidter,  drain,  and  egout, 
gutter.     See  nouns  formed  on  verbs,  p.  540. 

eisaloi,  isalot,  southeast  wind,  is  from  the  Arabic  esh-sharq,  the  latter 


Formation  of  Nouns  257 

-TAT 

The  ending  -TAT,  from  the  Latin  -TATEM,  is  found  in 
a  great  many  words  in  Provencal,  but  in  most  of  them  the 
existence  of  the  i  of  -ITATEM  makes  certain  the  learned 
character  of  the  formations.  Such  words  as  these  are 
caritat,  penalitat,  and  vigorositat,  which,  with  all  others 
of  the  kind,  will  be  omitted  from  the  lists.  Had  the 
word  caritat,  for  example,  been  a  popular  formation, 
the  intertonic  vowel  i  would  have  disappeared  entirely, 
as  happened  in  many  words  in  Provencal,  as,  for  example, 
in  egaltat,  representing  an  aequalitatem}  Besides  these 
two  cases,  first  of  the  retention  of  i  and  then  of  its  total 
disappearance,  there  is  another  type  of  words,  namely, 

I  Given  in  Olcott,  59.  The  Prov.  word  seems  to  have  had  a  popular 
development,  whereas  the  Fr.  word,  egalite,  is  evidently  learned. 


part  of  which — the  noun  without  the  article  esh — became  the  Lat. 
siroccus,  the  It.  sirocco,  and  the  Engl,  sirocco,  siroc.  See  Cent.  Die, 
"siroc." 

foliot,  pendulum,  is  obscure.  It  may  be  connected  with  the  verb 
folir,  become  crazy  (therefore  run  back  and  forth) ,  and  foliot  might  mean 
"the  little  thing  running  back  and  forth,"  but  it  is  very  uncertain. 
Foliot  is  likewise  in  O.Fr. 

lagot,  flattery,  exists  beside  lagotear,  flatter.  Lagot  is  probably  a 
post-verbal  noun  formed  on  lagotear,  but  the  formation  is  not  certain. 
See  Korting,  No.  5,394,  and  Diez,  623. 

lingot,  ingot.  Cf.  the  O.Fr.  lingot  and  the  Sp.  Ungate;  obscure  as 
to  source.  Du  Gauge's  lingotus  dates  only  from  1440,  and  therefore  can- 
not be  taken  as  the  source.  The  Engl,  word  probably  dropped  the  I 
through  its  being  supposed  to  represent  the  Fr.  article.  The  Engl, 
word  is  found  in  Chaucer.     See  Murray,  under  "ingot." 

Still  other  words  beside  which  no  simple  word  is  found,  and  probably 
not  of  Prov.  origin,  are  machota,  owl;  matalot,  sailor;  minhot,  cushion; 
panhota,  kind  of  roll,  and  pelota,  ball.  Of  these,  machota  is  somewhat 
obscure.  Matalot  and  minhot  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Fr.  matelot 
and  mignot,  the  original  form  of  Tnignon.  Pelota  seems  to  come  from  a 
Lat.  *pilotta,  and  panhota  is  probably  from  *paniotta.  Du  Cange  gives 
a  late  form,  panhotus. 

Possible  formations  on  verbs  are  pilot,  machine  for  throwing  missiles, 
from  pilar,  crush,  and  picota,  smallpox,  from  picar,  prick. 


258  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

those  in  which  this  i  of  the  intertonic  syllable  becomes 
e  instead  of  disappearing.  There  are  several  causes  which 
could  bring  about  such  a  result.  In  the  first  place,  in 
such  words  as  castitateni,  sanctitatem,  the  disappearance 
of  the  intertonic  vowel  would  have  brought  together 
two  f's,  one  belonging  to  the  word  proper  and  the  other 
to  the  suffix,  in  a  particularly  difficult  combination  of 
consonants.^  This  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  reasons 
for  the  retention  of  the  vowel  as  e  in  French,  where,  from 
such  a  starting-point  as  these  forms,  the  e  which  was 
here  developed  came  to  be  thought  of  as  part  of  a  suffix 
-ETE,  giving  rise  to  the  belief  that  the  suffix  -TE  from 
-TATE,  was  added  to  the  feminine  form  of  the  adjective.- 
In  Provengal,  from  the  word  castitatem  we  find  two  forms 
in  Raynouard — the  learned  development  castitat,  and  the 
form  with  e — castedat.  We  find  also  dezonestat  beside  de- 
zonestetat,  showing  a  good  deal  of  confusion  in  the  treat- 
ment of  words  of  the  kind,  the  usual  development  appar- 
ently being,  however,  the  change  of  i  to  e,  as  in  French. 
This  change  was  then  made  in  other  words  in  which  there 
was  no  difficult  combination  of  consonants,  being  aided 
probably  by  the  number  of  Provenyal  adjectives  already 
ending  in  e,  for  whenever  -TAT  was  added  to  one  of 
these  forms,  we  have,  to  all  appearance,  again  a  suffix 
-ETAT.  The  appearance  of  this  e  is  often  so  capricious 
that  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  it  at  all,  but  this  much 

1  Another  reason  for  the  persistence  of  the  intertonic  vowel  is  the 
confusion  that  its  disappearance  would  bring  about  in  Prov.  in  such  cases 
between  the  suffixes  -AT  and  -TAT.  Both  these  causes  would  help  the 
development  of  the  intertonic  vowel;  but  possibly  the  model  of  learned 
and  semi-learned  words  in  which  the  suffix  was  recognized  would  be 
sufficient  to  preserve  it  in  some  words  as  e  and  to  cause  its  insertion  in 
some  popular  words.  For  further  discussion  of  the  intertonic  vowel,  see 
the  verbal  suffix  -EGAR,  p.  355,  below. 

2  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  586. 


Formation  of  Nouns  259 

may  be  said:  In  learned  words  i  remained  as  i.  In 
popular  words  formed  in  Latin,  the  intertonic  vowel 
disappeared;  and  in  popular  Provencal  formations  an 
e,  due  to  the  reasons  given  above,  was  often,  but  not 
always,  inserted. 

As  for  the  use  of  the  suffix,  it  regularly  formed  abstracts 
and  was  added,  except  in  very  few  cases,  to  adjectives, 
especially  to  those  ending  in  -ABLE,  -IBLE,  and  -OS. 

Formations  on  adjectives  without  e: 

amartat,^  bitterness  amar,  bitter 

heltat,  beauty  hel,  beautiful 

dezegaltat,"^  inequality  dezegal,  unequal 

dezonestat,  dishonesty  dezonest,  dishonest 

malvestat,  badness  malvais,  bad 

prodeltat,^  heroes'  deeds  pro,  valiant 

rictat,  power,  nobility  ric,  powerful,  noble 

veltat,]  old  age  velh,  old 

Cases  in  which  the  simple  adjective  ends  in  e: 

agradabletat,*  harmony  agradable,  agreeable 

aprovechabletat*  perfectibility  aprovechable,  profitable 

debonairetat,^  kind-heartedness 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  different  suffixes  that  the  word  for 
"bitter"  (Lat.  amarus)  adds  to  express  abstract  force:  in  Prov.,  we  find 
besides  amartat,  amarum  and  amareza;  in  Fr.,  amertume;  and  in  Sp., 
amargura. 

2  Or  formed  on  egaltat  by  means  of  the  prefix  DES-. 

3  The  -el-  in  prodeltat  is  a  puzzle,  as  prodel  is  not  found.  It  may  have 
existed,  however  (cf.  crespel  and  falbel,  p.  305,  in  which  we  see  adjectives 
in  -EL  formed  on  adjectives).  In  order  to  have  the  d,  however,  prodel 
must  have  been  formed  in  Lat.  on  prodcm.  For  a  comment  on  the  mean- 
ing of  prodeltat,  see  text  at  the  end  of  the  word-list,  p.  260. 

*  See  double  suffixes,  p.  385. 

5  See  hybrid  formations.  Dehonaire  is  not  given  in  either  Raynouard 
or  Levy,  and  probably  did  not  exist  as  a  single  word,  but  only  in  the 
phrase  de  ban  aire.  Dehonairitat  seems  to  be  a  coinage  of  the  author 
of  Flamenca. 

t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  denhtat,  dignity < dignitatem;  dnrtat,  hardness 
Kduritatem;  fertat<feritatem;  vialtat,  hadness<malitatem;  plentat,  ful- 
ness< plenitatem;   purtat,  purity < pur itatem. 


260  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

orrelal,  dirtiness,  filth  orre,  dirty 

orribletat,  horror  orrible,  horrible 

terribletal,  terrible  things  terrible,  terrible 

Cases  in  which  e  is  inserted : 

avaretat,  avarice  avar,  avaricious 

certanetat,  certainty  cerlan,  certain 

egalieretat,  cheapness  egalier,  equal 

enversetat,  disagreeableness  envers,  reversed 

escarsetat,  avarice  escars,  stingy 

esquerretat,  refractoriness  ( ?)  esqv^r,  refractory  ( ?) 

fumosetat,  vapor,  smokiness  fumos,  smoky 

franquetal,  frankness  franc,  frank 

leugieretal,  frivolity  leugier,  frivolous 

nescietat,  ignorance  nesci,  ignorant 

salvetat,  safety  salv,  safe 

sobiranetat,  pride,  elevation  sobeiran,  proud 

vivasedai,t  vivacity  vivatz,  vivacious  (being  itself  the 

comparative  of  adjective  vij) 

prodeltat,  heroes'  deeds,  and  terribletat,  terrible  things, 

have  strayed  from  the  strict  abstract  sense  to  a  more 

concrete  one,  almost  collective  in  force.     There  are  also 

three  words  in  -TAT  which  have  gradually  acquired  the 

meaning  of  place: 

aspretat,  rough  region  aspre,  rough 

ermetat,  unplowed  land  erm,  deserted 

Zauseda^,  abandoned  place  or  house     laus,  abandoned 

Besides  these  words  with  e  there  are  also  some  words 

with  i,  yet  which  do  not  seem  to  have  been  formed  in 

Latin ;! 

mesquinitat,  misery  mesquin,  miserable 

potioritat,  right  of  first  mortgage  (  ?) 

questaiitul,  position  of  one  who  has     questal,      submitted      to       the 
to  pay  the  "questa"  "questa" 

1  They  were  formed  in  Prov.  times  in  imitation  of  Lat.  words. 

t  Words  ending  in  -TAT  formed  in  Lat.  are  cobezetat,  cupidity< 
cupiditatem,  and  maduretat,  vaaXuvityCmaturitatem.;  noveletat,  novelty< 
novelitatem;  pauquetat,  psxucity Kpaucitatem,  and  orrezetat,  probably  from 
*horriditatem. 


Formation  of  Nouns  261 

There  are  also  a  few  formations  on  verbs: 

emprenitat,  impregnation  emprenhar  (  ?) 

encequetat,  blindness  encecar,  blind 

estatuitat,  order,  decree  estatuir,  order 

greugetat,  difficulty  greujar,  make  heavy 

The  formation  on  verbs  is  unusual,  however,  in  ab- 
stracts of  this  kind.  -AMEN,  -ANSA,  or  -AZON  would 
be  more  natural  as  suffixes. 

The  two  following  words   appear  to  be   formed   on 

nouns : 

mairetat,  mayoralty  maire,  mayor 

onoretat,  honor,  honorable  position     onor,  honor 

-URA 

The  Provengal  suffix  -URA,  like  -ADURA,  etc., 
treated  above, ^  is  derived  from  the  Latin  suffix  -TURA, 
which  was  used  to  form  abstract  nouns  on  verb-stems  in 
Latin,  and  when  used  in  forming  new  words  in  Provengal, 
was  added  to  the  stem  of  the  infinitive.  Latin  words, 
such  as  cinctura,  mixtura,  and  stridura,  in  which  it  is 
not  the  infinitive  but  the  supine  stem  to  which  the  end- 
ing is  added,  have  given  the  suffix  -TURA,  which  was 
later,  in  accordance  with  Romance  principles  of  word- 
formation,  to  be  added  to  the  infinitive  stem,  giving  in 
Provencal  -ADURA,^  etc.  Then,  apparently  from  some 
such  word  as  stridura,  existing  beside  the  past  participle 
stridus,  was  detached  a  suffix  -URA,  remaining  -URA  in 
Provencal.  But  stridus  was  used  as  an  adjective;  hence 
stridura,  narrowness,  resembles  stridus,  narrow -|-the  suffix 

1  p.  57. 

2  This  Prov.  -ADURA,  added  to  verb-stems  in  Prov.,  may,  however, 
have  come  originally  from  the  past  participle  of  regular  verbs,  that  is, 
those  in  -AT,+-URA,  thus  being  just  like  the  formations  on  the  irregular 
past  participles  cinctus  and  stridus. 


262  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 

-URA.  Thus  -ADURA  and  -URA  come  from  absolutely 
the  same  source,  and  are  a  good  example  of  the  different 
uses  of  a  suffix.  -TURA  > -ADURA  continued  to  be 
added  to  verb-stems  and  formed  abstracts  denoting  the 
action  indicated  by  the  verb.  -URA,  detached  from  a 
past  participle  which  had  come  to  be  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive, and  then  added  to  other  adjectives,  also  had  abstract 
force,  but  denoted  a  condition — that  of  the  quality 
described  by  the  adjective.  These  are  the  two  kinds  of 
abstract  meanings  that  are  found,  and  the  development 
this  suffix  has  taken  illustrates  th(^  principle  that  abstracts 
formed  on  verbs  denoted  action,^  whereas  those  formed 
on  adjectives  denoted  condition. 

Another  less  usual  kind  of  formation,  that  on  nouns, 
is  due  to  the  use  of  past  participles  as  nouns.  The  suffix 
-URA  seemed  to  give  little  change  to  nouns  of  this  kind, 
and  this  may  explain  why  it  is  found  in  a  few  new  forma- 
tions joined  to  nouns  whose  meaning  it  changes  but 
little. 

Before  turning  to  the  Provencal  formations  on  both 
adjectives  and  nouns,  it  might  be  well  to  enumerate  the 
possible  Provencal  formations  on  past  participles.  These 
wo  find  to  be: 

apostura,  addition.     The  past  participle  of  aponre  is  nposl,  but  there 

is  also  a  noun  aposta,  meaning  "addition." 
cobertura,  covering.      The   past  participle  of  cobrir  is  coberl,  but 

there  are  also  the   nouns  cobert,   covered  place,   and  coberta, 

covering. 
descobertura,  discovery.     The  past  participle  of  descobrir  is  descobert. 
desconfitura,    discomfiture.      The    past    participle    of    desconfir    is 

desconfit,  but  there  is  also  the  noun  desconfida,  discomfiture. 
ofertura,  sacrifice.     The  past  participle  of  ofrir  is  ofert,  but  the  noun 

oferta,  offering,  also  exists. 

'  For  formations  of  this  kind,  see  the  suffixes  -ADURA,  -EDURA, 
and  -IDURA,  pp.  57  S.,  above. 


Formation  of  Nouns  263 

pertrachura,    picture.     The   past  participle  of   pertraire  is  pertrach, 

but  the  noun  pertrach  also  exists. 
repostura,  response  ( ?)  (Raynouard  translates  "retreat  ")•     The  past 

participle  of  respondre  is  repotst,  but  the  nouns  respost  and  resposta 

both  exist,  meaning  response.! 

It  seems  probable  that  the  Provengal  examples  may 

have  been   formed   on  past   participles  in  imitation  of 

Latin  models,  but  the  existence  of  the  noun  in  every 

case  would  give  a  starting-point  for  formations  on  nouns. 

Such  formations  are  seen  in : 

aurura,  gold-colored  trout  aitr,  gold 

graisura,  grease  graisa,  grease 

penchura,  head  of  hair  {penche,  comb) 

One  other  word  is  somewhat  puzzling.  This  is  cor- 
rompura,  which  apparently  adds  -URA  to  an  infinitive 
stem  instead  of  adding  -TURA,  which  here  would  have 
given  -EDURA.  Levy,  however,  suggests  that  the  word 
should  be  corrected  to  corrompedura.^  Unless  the  sug- 
gestion is  adopted,  the  formation  of  the  word  is  entirely 
exceptional  and  contrary  to  all  principles  of  word-forma- 
tion in  the  language. 

The  origin  of  the  formations  on  adjectives  has  already 
been  stated,  as  well  as  their  meaning,  which  is  abstract, 
and  denotes  a  condition: 
altura,  height  alt,  high 

haisura,  lowness,  low  position  has,  low 

(The  i,  as  in  baiseza,  may  be  due  to  the  influence  of  baisar.) 

»I,  381. 

tThe  forms  of  certain  Lat.  origin  should  also  be  mentioned:  arsura, 
burning  <ar sura;  Centura,  belt  <  ci net ura;  coltura,  culture <  co/^ura,- 
comesura,  joint,  seam< commissitra;  estrechura,  narrownessK strictura ; 
fachura,  iorm <. factura ;  mistura,  m\-s.t\iTe<imixtura;  onchura,  ointment 
<.unctura;  penchura,  painting  Kpinctura  for  pictura;  penchura,  prick- 
ing <  punc^wra;  tenchura,  dyeing <  ^inciura.  Other  words  also  almost 
certainly  of  Lat.  origin  are  costura,  sewing < *consii<wra  (  ?),  and  escosura, 
threshing<  *excussura,  just  as  escosor  was  derived  from  excussorium  (see 
Nouv.  Ess.,  251,  n.  2). 


264 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


dolsura,  sweetness 

drechura,  right,  title 

falsura,  falsity 

folatura,  foletura,  folly,  appears 
to  bo  formed  on  folet,  wanton, 
frivolous,  derived  iromfol 

frejura,  coldness 

laidura,  dirt;  outrage 

largura,  breadth 

longura,  length 

negrura,  blackness 

planura,  smoothness,  plain 

plenura,  fulness 

sornura,  obscurity 

verdura,  verdure 

vilhura,\  baseness 


dols,  sweet 
drech,  right 
fals,  false 


freg,  cold 
laid,  dirty 
larc,  broad 
lone,  long 
negre,  black 
plan,  smooth 
plen,  full 
sorn,  dark 
vert,  green 
vilh,  vile 


Also,  like  -ADURA  joined  to  nouns,  -URA  contracts 
a  collective  meaning  in  agrura,  sour  fruit,  from  agre,  sour. 
The  contracting  of  a  concrete  meaning  is  to  be  seen 
even  in  many  of  the  words  formed  on  verb-stems.^ 

» As  in  some  of  the  words  in  -AMEN,  given  in  the  notes — encar- 
tamen,  etc. 


t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  estrechura<.sirictura.     See  above,  p.  263,  n.  f. 


CHAPTER  II 

FORMATION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

The  suffixes  that  form  adjectives  may  be  classified 
according  to  the  kind  of  adjectives  they  form,  just  as  the 
noun-suffixes  were  classified  according  to  the  kind  of 
nouns  they  formed,  although  the  different  kinds  of  adjec- 
tives do  not,  perhaps,  stand  out  so  clearly  as  did  the 
different  kinds  of  nouns.  The  adjectives  may  be  divided, 
nevertheless,  into  those  expressing  possibility,  those 
denoting  possession  of  a  quality,  those  denoting  resem- 
blance or  having  the  idea  of  "belonging"  or  "pertaining 
to,"  and  diminutives.  Thus  there  are  suffixes  that  give 
these  various  meanings  to  the  words  to  which  they  are 
attached,  and  again,  as  was  the  case  with  the  nouns,  there 
is  the  suffix  that  changes  in  no  way  the  meaning  of  this 
word — -the  forceless  suffix.  It  is  once  more  possible,  also, 
to  give  a  general  rule  for  the  part  of  speech  to  which  each 
of  these  kinds  of  suffixes  was  added.  Thus  the  suffixes 
denoting  possibility  are  regularly  attached  to  verb-stems, 
the  ones  denoting  possession,  to  nouns  as  well  as  to  verbs, 
those  denoting  resemblance,  etc.,  to  nouns,  the  diminu- 
tive suffixes  to  adjectives,  and  the  forceless  suffix  always 
to  adjectives. 

Most  of  the  ciuestions  that  required  study  in  dealing 
with  the  nouns  may  briefly  be  dismissed  here.  For 
example,  there  is  but  little  confusion  as  to  the  source  of 
adjectival  suffixes.^  The  acquiring  of  new  meanings  by 
individual  suffixes  is  also  unusual,  although  sometimes 
the  original  meaning  may  be  extended  a  little.     This  is 

1  -ENC  and  -ESC  are  the  only  ones  showing  any  real  confusion  (see 
pp.  306  and  310  below),  and  these  are  also  used  in  forming  nouns. 

265 


266  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

the  case  with  the  suffix  -ES  from  the  Latin  -ENSIS, 
which  was  added  only  to  names  of  places  to  denote  the 
inhabitants  thereof,  l)ut  is  found  in  Provencal,  as  well  as 
in  the  other  Romance  languages,  added,  in  one  or  two 
cases,  to  other  words  than  nouns  of  place, ^  and  in  these 
words  it  has  simply  the  meaning  of  "belonging  to."  The 
use  of  double  suffixes  is  just  the  same  here  as  that  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  nouns.- 

A  classification  of  the  suffixes  according  to  the  part  of 
speech  to  which  they  were  added  has  been  made  above. 
It  remains  now  to  examine  more  in  detail  the  formations 
on  each  part  of  speech. 

1.  The  suffixes  added  to  verb-stems  will  be  treated 
first.  Here  we  find  -ABLE,  -ADOR,  -ADITZ,  and  -lU 
added  only  to  verb-stems;  -AT  added  to  nouns  as  well 
as  verbs;  and  -lER  and  -OS  added  to  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  verbs.  The  suffixes  added  exclusively  to  verb-stems 
regularly  denote  possibility — that  of  performing  the  action 
expressed  by  the  verb.  This  possibility  may,  indeed, 
be  either  active  or  passive.  It  is  active  in  such  words 
as  endurable,  everlasting  (that  which  can  last  forever), 
and  passive  in  such  words  as  amable,  lovable  (that  which 
may  be  loved),  the  passive  adjectives  naturally  having  to 
be  formed  on  transitive  verbs,  and  the  active  ones  being 
generally  formed  on  intransitive  ones.  A  few  words  have 
both  active  and  passive  force,  as  amonestable,  meaning 
both  "persuasive" and  "persuadable."^  A  noteworthy  fact 
concerning  these  suffixes,  considering  the  great  similarity 

>  As  in  canones,  for  example,  or  leones,  given  under  -ES,  p.  309. 

-  All  parts  of  speech  formed  by  means  of  double  suffixes  will  be 
treated  together  in  chap.  v.  As  examples  of  real  double  suffixes,  lin- 
hatjal  and  novelet  may  be  mentioned,  and  as  examples  of  compound  ones, 
coladier  and  hastarez. 

5  See  pp.  272  and  274  for  treatment  of  the  word. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  267 

in  their  use,  is  the  scarcity  of  examples  of  stems  showing 
two  or  more  of  these  endings. ^  Examples  of  the  inter- 
change of  -ABLE  and  -ADOR  are  seen  in  ensenhable 
and  ensenhador,  which  are,  however,  different  in  meaning,'' 
and  in  espaventable  and  espaventador,  of  which  the  latter, 
however,  appears  to  be  used  only  as  a  noun.  -lU  is 
found  in  agradiu  beside  agradahle,  both  meaning  "pleas- 
ing." It  does  not,  however,  appear  ever  to  have  the  idea 
of  passive  possibility  seen  in  -ABLE  and  -ADOR,  and, 
rather  than  the  idea  of  possibility,  it  seems  often  to  mean 
"performing"  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb,  as  in 
ado7miiu,  domineering,  asolasiu,  entertaining,  cargiu, 
burdensome,  etc.,  which  is  almost  precisely  the  force 
seen  in  -ABLE  and  -ADOR^  when  attached  to  intransi- 
tive verbs. 

The  suffix  that  is  attached  to  nouns  as  well  as  to  verbs, 
-AT,  denotes  possession  of  a  quality,  as  has  been  stated. 
It  was  originally  a  participial  ending  and  not  a  suffix  at  all, 
but  past  participles  were  often  used  as  adjectives,  and  an 
adjective  suffix  -AT  was  thus  created.  Later  on,  it 
became  attached  to  nouns  as  well,  owing  to  the  coexistence 
of  nouns  similar  in  form  to  the  verbs  to  which  it  was 
added.^   Here  it  may  be  well  also  to  mention  -UT,  detached 

1  The  examples  given  here  are  almost  the  only  ones,  whereas  under 
nouns,  for  example  the  abstracts,  compare  the  number  of  examples  of 
the  same  stem  having  -AMEN,  -ANSA,  and  -AZON  added  to  it,  and 
giving  the  same  meaning. 

•  Ensenhable  =  teachable,  and  ensenhador  apparently  means  "about 
to  teach." 

3  The  difference  in  idea  between  "performing"  and  "capable  of 
performing"  being  a  rather  slight  one  and  often  hard  to  define. 

*  As,  for  example,  molher  beside  molherar.  Molherat,  married,  the 
past  participle  of  molherar,  was  used  as  an  adjective  in  such  a  phrase  otne 
molherat,  married  man,  and  then,  through  confusion  with  molher,  woman, 
wife,  the  suffix  became  attached  to  nouns  as  well  as  to  verbs.  See 
Meyer-Llibke,  II,  565,  where  coronatus  is  given  as  an  example  of  this 
process.     For  suffix  -AT,  see  p.  298  below. 


268  AVORD-FORMATION    IN    PROVENgAL 

from  the  past  participles  of  verbs  ending  in  -er  and  -re. 
It  is  found  added  only  to  nouns,  with  a  specialized  de- 
velopment of  the  idea  of  possession.' 

The  onl}'  other  suffixes  ever  attached  to  verbs  are  -lER 
and  -OS,  the  former  meaning  "pertaining  to"  or  "bear- 
ing," and  the  latter  generally  meaning  "full  of."  Both 
of  these  suffixes,  however,  were  originally  attached  to 
nouns.  The  extension  of  their  use  to  verbs  may  have 
been  due  to  some  such  confusion  as  that  found  in  the 
case  of  -AT. 

2.  Next,  turning  to  the  suffixes  added  to  nouns,  we  find 
them  forming  the  adjectives  expressing  resemblance  or 
having  the  idea  of  "belonging"  or  "pertaining  to"  men- 
tioned above.  No  very  strict  classification  can  be  made 
of  their  meanings,  as  these  shade  into  each  other  much 
more  than  meanings  of  the  nouns,  which  could  be  classified 
as  abstracts,  collectives,  etc.  The  adjectival  suffixes  added 
to  nouns,  on  the  other  hand,  all  give  the  same  kind  of 
force  to  these  words — that  of  "pertaining  to,"  "like"  or 
"of"  the  noun  to  which  they  are  attached,  although  these 
may  be  described  as  ideas  of  belonging,  resemblance,  and 
material.  The  suffixes  of  this  kind  are  -AL,  -AN,  -AR, 
-ENC,  -ES,  -ESC,  and  -IN.  Examples  may  be  given  to 
shoAV  how  nearly  alike  the  ideas  just  mentioned  really 
are.  Almost  every  word  can  be  translated  in  ways 
showing  more  than  one  of  these  ideas.  Thus  we  find  fogal, 
of  fire  or  fiery;  rozan,  of  rose,  pink;  lachenc,  of  milk, 
milky,  milk-giving,  and  uvenc,  of  grapes,  grape-colored; 
espanes,  of  Spain,  Spanish,  and  leones,  of  a  lion,  lion-like; 
mulin,  of  mules,  mulish,  etc.  As  there  is  so  little  differ- 
ence between  the  different  ideas  which  the  suffixes  added 
to  nouns  express  that  many  words  had  more  than  one 

>  See  p.  330,  below. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  269 

of  them,  it  is  natural  to  find  these  suffixes  sub- 
stituted freely  for  one  another.  They  appear,  indeed, 
to  be  almost  interchangeable.  Thus  we  find  with  the 
same  meaning,  fogal  and  foguenc;  rozan  and  rozenc; 
lachin  and  lachenc;  espanes  and  espanesc.  It  may  be 
seen  from  this  list  that  the  suffix  -ENC  is  added  to  the 
same  words  that  take  also  -AL,  -AN,  and  -IN,  and  with 
the  same  meaning:  the  only  perceptible  difference  is  in 
the  kind  of  noun  to  which  each  suffix  was  most  frequently 
added.  -AL,  for  example,  retains  enough  traces  of  its 
original  use  to  be  found  added  to  some  nouns  denoting 
rank,  as  comtal,  consolal,^  etc.  -ENC,  originally  denoting 
material,  was  added  to  many  names  of  things  of  decided 
color,  as  lack,  milk,  nieu,  snow,  sane,  blood,  which  may 
have  been  the  cause  of  a  later  addition  of  the  suffix  to 
many  adjectives  of  color."  -ES  is  the  commonest  suffix 
denoting  nationality,  retaining  thus  its  Latin  usage  of 
being  attached  to  nouns  of  place,  though  this  usage  has 
been  extended.  -ESC,  generally  meaning  simply  "per- 
taining to,"  shows  its  twofold  origin  in  a  few  adjectives 
of  nationality  formed  on  nouns  of  place;  and  -IN  express- 
ing the  idea  of  "pertaining  to"  and  "like"  is  very  fre- 
quently added  to  names  of  animals  and  metals,  again 
following  Latin  usage. 

3.  Finally,  we  come  to  the  suffixes  attached  to  adjec- 
tives. These  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  as  the  ones 
just  studied  as  being  attached  to  nouns,  -AL,  -AN,  -AR 
and  -ESC,  as  well  as  -lER  and  -OS,  which,  in  addition  to 
verbs,  were  attached  to  both  nouns  and  adjectives.  Aside 
from  the  suffixes  -ET  and  -EN, -EL  is  the  only  one  attached 

1  From  the  Lat.  cansularis. 

2  In  these  words  it  modifies  to  some  extent  the  force  of  the  adjective. 
Thus  rogenc,  reddish,  from  rog,  red,  etc.     See  p.  308  below. 


270  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

oxclusivply  to  adjectives,  and  this  and  all  the  others  just 
named,  when  attached  to  adjectives,  change  in  no  way  these 
words,  and  are,  therefore,  examples  of  the  forceless  suffix 
mentioned  above.  It  is  thus  possible  to  deduce  from  these 
examples  the  rule  that  adjectival  suffixes,  wlum  attached 
to  adjectives,  have  no  force  whatever.  The  only  excep- 
tions would  be  -ET  and  -EN.  -ET,  as  has  been  seen  in 
the  first  chapter,  is  a  true  diminutive  suffix,  and  turns 
into  diminutive  forms  the  words  to  which  it  is  attached, 
whether  nouns  or  adjectives.  -EN  is  attached  to  numeral 
adjectives,  and  changes  cardinals  into  ordinals. 

The  individual  suffixes  forming  adjectives  will  now  be 
studied  in  alphabetic  order. 

-ABLE,    -IBLE 

-ABLE  and  -IBLE  are  the  forms  which  we  find  in 
Provencal  derived  from  the  Latin  adjective  suffix  -BILIS. 
In  Latin,  the  suffix  was  regularly  attached  to  verbs, 
generally  to  the  present  stem,  and  the  Romance  languages 
have  continued  that  process;  they  have,  however,  failed 
to  form  many  new  words  on  the  stem  of  the  past  participle, 
one  of  the  processes  of  formation  in  Latin.  The  forma- 
tions in  Provengal  are  made  on  the  infinitive  stem,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  other  verbal  suffixes  that  we 
have  studied.  Yet  instead  of  finding  the  forms  -ABLE, 
-EBLE,  and  -IBLE  which  we  might  expect  from  joining 
-BLE<-B(I)LIS  to  the  stem-vowel  of  the  three  con- 
jugations, we  find  practically  nothing  but  -ABLE  and 
-IBLE,  -EBLE  being  found  in  only  one  word  (of  Latin 
origin).  Yet  on  examining  the  lists  more  closely,  there 
are  found  very  few  words  in  -IBLE,  and  these  are  all 
evidently  learned  formations  in  Provencal.     The  reason 


Formation  of  Adjectives  271 

is  that  in  Latin  there  was  no  -IBILIS,  the  suffix  being 
added  only  to  a,  e,  i,  and  u.  -UBLE  is  not  found  at  all 
in  Provencal,  -EBLE  only  in  iraisehle  (found  also  as 
iraisable),  and  -IBLE  only  in  the  few  learned  formations 
mentioned,  one  of  which — fluxible — is  evidently  formed 
on  a  past  participle,  fluxum,  from  the  verb  fluo.  This 
leaves,  then,  only  -ABLE,  which  has  not  only  persisted  in 
adjectives  derived  from  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation, 
but  has  also  extended  its  use  so  as  to  be  joined  to  verbs 
of  other  conjugations  and  to  take  the  place  of  -EBLE  and 
-UBLE.  Thus  the  development  of  the  suffix  -BILIS  is 
entirely  different  from  that  of  -MENTUM,  -TIONE, 
-TOR,  and  -TURA,  all  of  which  have  taken  three  forms  in 
Provencal — one  beginning  with  a  for  verbs  in  -ar,  one 
with  e  for  verbs  in  -er  or  -re,  and  one  with  i  for  verbs 
in  -ir,  the  whole  ending  being  added  as  a  single  suffix — 
for  instance,  -ATOREM,  -ATURAM,  -ETOREM,  -ETU- 
RAM,  to  the  steam  am-,  cred-,  etc.  -BILIS,  though 
frequent  in  Vulgar  Latin,  does  not  appear  to  have  formed 
many  new  words  in  Provencal,  or  ever  to  have  been 
felt  sufficiently  as  a  suffix  to  have  been  influenced  by  the 
verb  to  which  it  was  joined.  It  had  come  clown  in  a 
great  many  words  from  very  early  Latin,^  and  as  the 
forms  in  -ABLE  were  much  more  numerous  than  all  the 
others,  -ABLE  came  to  be  used  in  many  words  which  had 
originally  ended  in  -IBILIS  or  -UBILIS,  and  all  of  the 
new  popular  formations  took  this  ending. 

The  process  for  this  suffix  seems  to  have  been,  then, 
the  reduction  of  -BILIS  to  one  form  used  in  all  new  popu- 
lar words — the  form  added  rightly  to  stems  of  verbs  of 
the  first  conjugation,  -ABLE.  -IBLE  was  used  in  new 
words,  but  only  in  learned  ones  modeled  on  Latin  words 

1  Cooper,  p.  96. 


272  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

such  as  audibilis,  which,  however,  had  a  short  i} 
Formations  on  nouns  are  very  few. 

The  meaning  of  the  suffix  is  to  denote  possibihty  or 
capabihty,  but  a  possibihty  of  two  kinds.  Thus  amonest- 
able  means  "persuasive"  or  "capable  of  persuading," 
but  it  means  also  "capable  of  being  persuaded"  or  "per- 
suadable," the  first  being  the  active,  and  the  second  the 
passive  use.  Words  with  both  of  these  meanings  are, 
however,  rare,  the  rule  being  that  -ABLE  added  to  an 
active  verb  like  amonestar  should  give  the  passive  meaning; 
whereas  an  intransitive  verb  could  have  of  course  only  the 
active  meaning  in  the  derived  adjective.  In  Latin,  the 
usual  meaning  was  passive,  although  the  active  meaning 
is  not  uncommon. 

The  Provengal  formations-  with  passive  meaning  are 
as  follows: 

atnonestable,^  persuadable  amoneatar,  persuade 

azirable,  detestable  azirar,  hate 

comprehendable,  comprehensible         comprehender,  understand 

(The  Latin  word  is  in  -IBILIS 

and  formed  on  the  perfect  stem) 
conlribuable,  assessable  contribuir,  contribute 

corronipable,     corruptible.       This 

word  is  changed  from  a  Latin 

word  in  -IBLE,  which  is  formed 

on  a  perfect  stem. 
damnatjable,  damageable  damnaljar,  damage 

domesjable,  tameable  domesjar,  tame 

engardable,  noticeable  engardar,  look  at 

ensenhable,  teachable  ensenhar,  teach 

'  Not  in  Harper's  Dictionary,  but  White  and  Riddle  give  a  reference 
to  Boethius.  Murray  derives  the  Eng.  "audible"  from  a  Mediaeval  Lat. 
audibilis  with  a  long  i. 

-  Words  of  Lat.  origin  arc  inchided  in  those  lists  when  they  show  a 
change  of  -IBLE  to  -ABLE,  making  the  words  as  we  find  them  really 
Prov.  formations. 

3  See  also  the  list  on  p.  274. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


273 


entendable,  intelligible 
escomunegable,  excommunicable 
esgardable,  visible 
figurable,   capable  of  receiving  a 

figure 
fizable,  trustworthy 
flairable,  smellable 
gazanhable,  ploughable 
incom portable,  unendurable  =co»i- 

portable  with  negative  prefix 
increzable,  incredible:     Latin  in- 

credibilis 
invensable,  invincible:      Latin  in- 

vindbilis 
justiciable,  judgeable 
leudable,  taxable 
tnalhable,  malleable 
penhorable,  pledgeable 
pezable,  weighable 
piatable,  pitiable 
plegable,  pliable 
prendable,  acceptable 
reprendable,  reprehensible:    Latin 

reprehensibilis  (ending  -IBILIS 

and  on  perfect  stem). 
sobremontahle,  f  surmountable 


entender,  understand 
escomunegar,  excommunicate 
esgardar,  look  at 
figurar,  give  figure  to 

fizar,  trust 
flairar,  smell 
gazanhar,  plough 


justiciar,  do  justice 
leudar,  tax 
malhar,  hammer 
penhorar,  pledge 
pezar,  weigh 
piatar,  pity 
plegar,  bend 
prendre,  take,  accept 
reprendre,  blame,  accuse 


sobremontar,  surmount 


Most  of  the  adjectives  in  -ABLE  that  are  active  in 
meaning  are  formed  on  intransitive  verbs: 


agradable,  pleasing,  agreeable 
bezonhable,  necessary 

consonable,  unanimous 
continuable,  continuous 
corrable,  able  to  go 


agradar,  please 

bezonhar,  be  necessary  (also  ac- 
tive) 
consonar,  be  of  one  accord 
continuar,  continue 
correr,  run 


t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  we  find:  amable,  colpahle,  conservable,  corbable, 
curable,  dezirable,  endeclinable,  gostable,  gravable,  importable,  inter pretable, 
multiplicable,  proable,  and  termenable.  Another  word  in  -ABLE  is 
esplechable.  This  is,  however,  a  substantive,  the  only  one  with  this  end- 
ing. Its  original  adjectival  force  is  of  course  clear.  It  means  a  man 
whose  property  may  be  seized  judicially.  Its  substantive  use  undoubt- 
edly comes  from  the  disappearance  of  ome  in  the  phrase  ome  esplechable. 
From  esplechar,  levy,  a  legal  term. 


274 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


costumable,  customary 
convenable,  suitable 
dezagradnblc,  unpleasing 
desguizable,  changeable 
endurable,  everlasting 
escolorjahle,  slippery 
evaporable,  volatile 
grevable,  burdensome 
meravelhable,  marvelous 
nozable,  weighty 
penable,  painful 
perdurable,  lasting 
profetizable,  prophetic 
sert'iable-  (instead  of  servible),  ser 

viceable 
vergonhahlc,  f  shameful 


costumar,  be  customary 
convenir,  suit 
dezagradar,  be  unpleasing 
desguizar,  change 
endurar,  endure 
escolorjar,  slip 
evaporar,  evaporate 
grevar,  weigh  down 
meravelhar,  marvel 
nozer,  injure 
penar,  torture 
(perdurar,^  last) 
profetizar,  prophecy 
servir,  serve 


vergonhnr,  be  ashamed 
A  few,  however,  of  these  adjectives  with  active  meaning 
are  formed  on  transitive  verbs,  and  these,  therefore,  but  for 
the  beginnings  of  the  opposite  process  in  Latin,  we  should 
expect  to  find  with  passive  force.  Thus  amonestahle,  from 
amonestar,  means  persuasive  as  well  as  persuadable: 


decevahle,  deceitful 
defensable,  defensive. 

defensibilis 
degastable,  wasteful 
espaventable,  frightful 
traucable,  incisive 


For  Latin 


decebre,  deceive 
defendre,  defend 

degaiitar,  waste 
espaventar,  frighten 
traucar,  cut 


Many  verbs,  however,  such  as  penar  and  degastar,  are 
used  both  transitively  and  intransitively,  which  makes 
it  hard  to  classify  the  derived  adjectives.^ 

1  Not  found  in  Prov.,  but  existed  in  Lat. 

2  Possibly  through  influence  of  amiable  ( ?) ,  according  to  the  Die.  Gen. 
See  under  serviable. 

'  Another  similar  word  is  naludable,  healthful.  The  verb  on  which 
it  is  apparently  formed  is  saludar,  to  greet,  having  no  connection  with 
it  in  meaning.  If  formed  on  saludar,  it  was  doubtless  because  it  had 
originally  a  meaning  of  "give  health  to,"  hence  greet. 


t  A  word  of  Lat.  origin  belonging  to  this  list  is  mirableKmirabilis. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  275 

One  word  in  -EBLE  has  already  been  mentioned — 
iraiseble.  This,  however,  is  Latin,  from  irascibilis. 
Raynouard  has  iraisable. 

The  Provengal  words  in  -IBLE,  all  learned  formations, 

are  as  follows: 

envazible,  invadable  envazir,  invade 

franhible,  fragile  franker,  break 

marcezible,  perishable  marcezir,  wither,  fade 

percorrible,  having  currency  percorre,  run  through 

polible,  polishable  polir,  polish 

tazible,  silent  tazer,  be  silent 

unible,  f  fit  to  be  joined  iinir,  join 

The  same  rule  of  formations  with  passive  force  on 
transitive  verbs,  and  formations  with  active  force  on 
intransitive  verbs,  may  be  seen  here  also. 

-ABLE  and  -IBLE  are  also  found  added  to  nouns  in 

a  few  words.     -ABLE  is  seen  in: 

metable,  fit,  suitable  meta,  limit 

pasionable,  capable  of  passion^  pasion,  passion 

questable,  subject  to  the  "questa"      questa,  a  tax 

-IBLE  is  seen  in: 

patzible,  peaceable  patz,  peace 

Such  formations  might  easily  be  due  to  the  influence  of 
such  forms  as  vergonhable,  beside  which  the  noun  vergonha 
as  well  as  the  verb  vergonhar  existed. 

Before  leaving  the  Provencal  forms  of  the  Latin  -BILIS, 
it  is  necessary  to  mention  another  set  of  forms  found  in  a 
few  words,  namely,  -A VOL  (found  in  two  words),  -EVOL 
(found  in  three),  and  -IVOL  (in  all  other  cases).  These 
forms  clearly  represent  the  same  Latin  suffix  as  is  seen  in 
-ABLE,  -EBLE,  and  -IBLE,  and  are  different  develop- 

1  Another  word  with  the  same  meaning  is  pasihle,  coming  from  a 
Lat.  jMSsibilis,  derived  from  passus,  the  past  participle  of  potior. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  there  is  nozible.     See  nozable  above  for  a  correspond- 
ng  Prov.  formation. 


276  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

merits  of  it.     A  large  number  of  these  words  are  found 

in  a  Waldensian  text,   and  probably  were  influenced  by 

the  Italian    form    -EVOLE    (<-BILIS)    as  well  as  by 

-OL  <-ULUS.     The  other  words  are  limited  to  a  few  other 

texts,  apparently  showing  the  dialect  of  the  same  region. 

The  frequency  with  which  -IVOL  is  found  may  be  due 

to  the  fact  that  these  words  are  learned  formations  made 

by  using  -IBILIS.     In  the  words  in  -EVOL,  two  of  which 

are  found  in  the  Waldensian  text  mentioned  above,  the 

influence  of  the  Italian  -EVOLE  appears  to  have  been 

even  stronger.      The  list  of  the  formations  on  verbs  follows : 

cagivol,  perishable  eager  (for  cazerf),  fall 

deleehivol,  delijihtful  deleehar,  delight 

enereisivol,  disgusting  encreiser,  be  displeasing 

espautevol,  frightful  espautar,  frighten 

espaventivol,  frightful  espaventar,  frighten 

estimivol,  calculable  estimar,  calculate 

fructifiavol,  fruitful  fruciifiar,  bear  fruit 

mensurivol,  measurable  mensurar,  measure 

movevol,  moveable  mover,  move 

noizivol,  injurious  nozer,  injure 

odorivol,  odoriferous  odorar,  smell 

onorivol,  rich,  magnificent  onorar,  honor,  celebrate,  adorn 

perdonavol  (in  phrase  an  p.  =  perdonar,  pafdon 

jubilee) 

profechivol,  f  profitable  profechar,  profit 

A  formation  on  a  noun  is : 

baronivol,  manly,  virile  baron,  man 

-AC,    -EC,    -IC,    -DC,   -UC 

For  the  adjectives  in  Provengal  ending  in  -AC,  -EC, 
-IC,  -OC,  and  -UC,  as  well  as  for  the  nouns  with  these 
endings,^  it  is  necessary  to  as.sume  as  a  source  for  the 

'  P.  18. 


t  The  ending  -IVOL  is  also  seen  in   the  adverb  enseguivolmen,  in 
consequence. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  277 

suffix  a  Latin  -ACCUS,  -ECCUS,  -OCCUS,  and  -UCCUS, 
instead  of  the  forms  with  a  single  c. 

There  are  no  real  examples  of  -ACCUS  in  Provencal, 
ebriac  being  nothing  but  the  Latin  word  ebriacus.  For 
words  in  -AIC,  see  -IC,  just  below. 

-EC,  however,  is  found  in  three  words  in  which  it  appears 
to  represent  a  suffix  -ECCUS:  bavec,  talkative,  connected 
with  bavar,  to  chatter,  both  of  which  are  apparently 
derived  from  *bava,  drivel,  not  found  in  Provencal,  but 
coming  from  a  Latin  *baba,  found  in  other  languages  as 
bava,  bave,  from  which  many  other  words  are  derived,  as 
in  French,  bavei',  bavard,  bavarder,  etc.;  canec,  gray,  can 
being  found  in  Provencal,  translated  by  Raynouard  as 
ardent,  though  the  meaning  is  not  quite  clear  ;^  and  manec, 
fixed,  stopping,  evidently  connected  with  the  verb  maner, 
to  remain. 

-IC  is  found  in  several  words  in  Provengal,  but  in  most 
of  them,  it  is  evidently  not  a  Provengal  suffix  that  is  to 
be  dealt  with,  but  instead,  a  remodeling  of  learned  words 
existing  in  Latin.- 

The  complete  list  of  the  words  in  -IC  is  as  follows: 
algaravic,  deific,  ebraic,  forsaic,  jiizaic,  laic,  niozaic,  nizaic. 

In  this  list,  the  number  of  words  in  which  the  -IC  is 
preceded  by  a,  making  probable  a  suffix  -AIC  instead 
of  -IC,  is  at  once  obvious.  The  words  in  which  -IC  is  not 
preceded  by  a,  and  the  suffix  -IC  is  clear,  will  be  treated 
first: 

1  Can,  given  in  Levy  I,  195,  is  probably  corrupt.  Levy  here  refers 
to  a  commentary  of  his  own  in  Litbl.,  XI,  344,  on  the  text  of  the  Auzels 
Casadors.  In  U.  2725  and  2726  we  find  blancs  and  cans  rhyming.  Yet 
it  is  quite  possible  that,  although  not  found,  can,  gray,  from  canus,  may 
have  existed  and  have  been  the  base  of  canec. 

2  As  there  are  peculiarities  in  the  formation  of  all  of  these  words, 
however,  each  one  will  be  treated  individually,  as  though  it  were  an 
ordinary  Pro  v.  formation. 


278  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Deific,  godliko,  devout,  comes  from  the  Latin  deificus, 
and  shows,  therefore,  a  shifting  of  the  accent.  It  is  a  word 
modeled  in  Provencal  times  on  the  Latin  source.^ 

Another  word  showing  a  shifting  of  the  accent,  making 
possible  the  ending  -IC,  is  algaravic,  arabic.  Raynouard 
gives  arabi  and  arahit,  and  Mistral  arabi  and  arabic. 
Arabic  certainly  must  have  existed  also  in  Old  Provengal 
and  have  been  formed,  like  the  above  words,  with  a 
shifting  of  the  accent,  on  arabicus.  Algaravic  seems  to 
point  to  a  transfer  of  the  suffix  from  arabic  to  the  word 
found  in  Spanish  as  algarabia  (from  an  Arabic  algarabia), 
and  probably  borrowed  in  Provencal  from  Spanish. 

Three  of  the  other  words  in  the  above  list^  are  simply 
regular  developments  of  the  Latin  unaccented  suffix 
-ICUS,  preceded  by  a,  and  giving  therefore  -AIC  and  not 
-IC  in  Provencal,  and  another  is  likewise  a  Latin  forma- 
tion.^ 

The  only  word  still  remaining  to  be  treated  is  therefore 
farsaic,  strong,  powerful.  This  is  beyond  doubt  a  Pro- 
vengal  formation,  and  its  meaning,  which  there  are  man}' 

1  And  to  this  word  should  also  be  added,  though  -IC  is  preceded  by 
a,  juzaic,  Jewish,  which  shows  a  similar  shifting  of  the  accent.  (Observe 
the  rhyme-words  given  in  Levy.)  The  word  is  from  the  Lat.  judaicus, 
from  Juda.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  it  with  ebraic,  given  below,  in 
which  apparently  the  accent  did  not  shift  (compare  its  rhyming  with 
laic,  which  is  often  written  Zee),  though  we  find  the  shifting  in  the  re- 
modeled Fr.  form  hebraique. 

2  These  are,  of  course,  ebraic  {Hehrew)  <hebraicus;  laic  (lay)  < 
laicus;  and  mozaic  (Mosaic)  <*»nosaicMS,  derived  from  Moses.  Cf.  in 
Mod.  Fr.  laique,  instead  of  lai,  the  learned  remodeling  seen  above  in 
deific. 

3  Nizaic,  silly,  inexperienced,  is  apparently  from  the  Lat.  nidax, 
from  nidus,  nest,  and  is,  therefore,  about  the  only  probable  example  of 
the  existence  of  the  suffix  -AX  in  Prov.  See  Cooper,  109.  The  Prov. 
word  has  the  same  source  as  the  Fr.  niais,  but  is  peculiar  in  form.  We 
should  expect  ni(z)ais.  Several  words  ending  in  ais,  as  for  example, 
putnais,  stinking,  are  found,  but  do  not  appear  to  represent  -AX. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  279 

examples  to  make  clear,  connects  it  with  forsa,  strength. 
The  examples,  however,  do  not  make  the  accentuation  of 
the  word  clear,  though  it  must  of  necessity  heforsaic.  This 
-IC  was  detached  from  such  words  as  deific  and  added  as  a 
Provengal  suffix,  which  must  naturally  have  borne  the 
accent. 

-OC  representing  a  Latin  -OCCUS  is  found  in  only  two 
words : 

badoc,  silly,  foolish,  connected  with  the  verb  badar, 
to  gape  at. 

buzoc,  dull,  foolish,  the  same  word  as  given  under  nouns 
with  the  meaning  of  buzzard.^  As  a  noun,  it  had  also  the 
suffixes  -AT  and  -AC,  diminutives.  -OC  shows  by  its  use 
for  -AT  its  diminutive  force  also. 

The  suffix  -UC  is  the  best  represented  of  any  of  the 
suffixes  of  the  group,  being  found  in  a  number  of  words. , 
The  forms  found  in  the  other  languages  apparently  are 
derived  by  means  of  both  -UCUS  and  -UCCUS.  Italian, 
for  example,  has  forms  both  in  -UCO  and  in  -UCCO.  It 
is  difficult  to  determine  the  origin  of  the  Provengal  forms 
without  finding  an  example  of  the  feminine.  Horning 
names  acertuc  and  faisuc-  as  being  derived  by  means  of 
-UCCUS,  and  astruc  is  probably  formed  by  using  -UCUS 
(compare  Spanish  malastrugo) .  The  suffix,  like  the  others 
of  the  group,  had  generally  a  kind  of  diminutive  force 
and  built  adjectives  on  nouns.  -UCCUS  seems  to  be 
the  source  of  -UC  in  most  of  the  words. 

acertuc,  strong,  sure  acert,  certitude 

astruc,  fortunate    (with   its   com- 
pounds benastruc,   fortunate 
and  malastruc,  unfortunate) ,  by 
means  of  -UCUS,  from  astre,  star 

1  See  pp.  20  and  22  above.  2  Zeitschrift,  XX,  348. 


280  WORD-FOKMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 

damnuc,   defective  dam,  damage  (Khat.  damnum) 

faduc,  silly  fat,  fool 

faisuc,  burdensome  fais,  burden 

frejuluc,  sensitive  to  cold.  The 
word  seems  to  show  a  dissimila- 
tion ior  frejuruc  built  on  frejura, 
coldness. 

paoriLC,  fearful  paor,  fear 

pezuc,  heavy  peza,  weight 

One  word  appears  to  be  formed  on  an  adjective: 
frevoluc,  bad,  breakable  frevol,  wreak 

Two  rather  obscure  words  are  badaluc  and  caluc. 

Badaluc,  dawdling,  silly,  is  evidently  connected  with 
the  verb  badar,  gape  at,  wait,  and  possibly  with  the 
derived  word  badalhar,  yawn.  Various  suggestions  have 
been  made^  but  none  satisfactory. 

caluc,  shortsighted,  is  also  puzzling.  It  is  hard  to 
connect  it  with  codes  having  this  meaning  in  Latin. 
Caducus  has  been  suggested,  but  can  hardly  be  the 
source. 

For  words  in  -ADITZ,  see  under  -ITZ,  on  p.  321. 

-ADOR,    -EDOR,    -IDOR 

The  adjective  suffix  -ADOR  is  in  development  exactly 
like  the  nominal  suffix  -ADOR  already  treated,-  both  in 
coming  from  the  Latin  -TORIUS,^  and  in  having  the  three 
forms  -ADOR,  -EDOR,  and  -IDOR  according  to  the 
conjugation  to  which  the  suffix  was  added.  The  original 
use  was,  of  course,  the  adjective  one,  and  the  use  as  nouns, 

•SeeKorting,  No.   1,1.50. 

2  P.  54  above. 

« In  some  cases,  however,  it  may  be  -TOR  that  we  have.  See  note  t 
on  p.  282. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  281 

as  in  so  many  other  cases,  was  a  later  substantive  use^ 
of  the  neuter  form. 

The  meanings  given  by  the  suffix  are  not  very  differ- 
ent from  those  belonging  to  -ABLE.  Thus  it  denotes 
a  possibility,  either  ability  to  perform  some  act,  or 
purely  passive  possibility,  the  meaning  generally  con- 
tributed by  the  suffix  when  added  to  a  transitive  verb. 
The  latter  meaning,  however,  is  not  nearly  as  regular  in 
this  case  as  it  is  with  -ABLE.  Amatorius,  for  example, 
existing  in  Latin,  means  "amatory"  or  "loving,"  a  per- 
sonal characteristic,  a  meaning  which  is  frequent  with 
this  suffix,  whereas  amabilis  has  the  meaning  of  "lovable," 
or  "worthy  of  being  loved."  The  adjective  with  active 
force  has  other  extensions  of  meaning,  as,  in  some  words  ^ 
it  denotes  the  use  of  the  noun  which  it  modifies,  as  in 
hrizador,  etc. 

Adjectives  used  actively,  denoting  ability,  a  char- 
acteristic, an  inclination,  or  futurity,  are  seen  in: 

abdurador,  able  to  endure  much, 

long-suffering;     from    ahdurar, 

endure 

celador,  secret,  concealed  celar,  conceal 

creador,  creative  crear,  create 

dezanador,  transitory  dezanar,  cease  to  go 

durador,  lasting  durar,  last 

ensenhador,  ready  to  teach  ensenhar,  teach 

espaventador,  terrifying  espaventar,  frighten 

guerrejador,  fond  of  war  guerrejar,  make  war 

larguejador,  generous  larguejar,  give  largess 

manifestador,     ready     to  make     manifestar,  make  manifest 

manifest 

menador,  about  to  lead  menar,  lead 

mercejado7-,  kindly  (ready  to  ask     mercejar,  ask  or  grant  pardon, 

pardon)  be  merciful 

navejador,  ready  to  sail  navejar,  sail 

1  Cooper,  155,  points  out  the  extreme  rarity  of  these  words  in  the 
classic  period. 


282 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


negar,  deny 
parar,  prepare 
pasar,  pass 
pojar,  ascend 

purgar,    purge,   justify  oneself. 
Porgar  in  Levy  means  "sift." 
profechar,  be  useful,  serve 
remembrar,  remember 
sofertar,  suffer,  endure 


negador,  able  to  deny 
parador,  able  to  prepare  (cloth) 
pasador,  about  to  pass 
pojador,  about  to  ascend 
porgador  (for  purgadorf),  ready  to 

justify  oneself 
profechador,  able  to  serve 
remembrador,  mindful 
sojertador,^  patient,  resigned 

Adjectives  meaning  "serving  to"   (perform  the  action 
of  the  verb  to  which  the  suffix  is  added)  are  as  follows : 

barrador^    (in    the    phrase    clavel     barrnr,  bar 
barrador —  ho\i  with  nut) 

qrizador,  serving  to  break 

carrejador,  serving  for  transporta- 
tion 

ferrador  (in  the  phrases  clavel  fer-    ferrar,  shoe  horses 
rador  and  martel  ferrador)  serv- 
ing to  shoe  horses 

latador  (in  the  phrase  clavel  lata- 
dor)  serving  to  put  on  laths 

mezurador,  for  measuring 

pescador,  for  fishing 

Under  -EDOR,  the  following  adjectives  with   active 
force  are  found: 


brizar,  break 

carrejar,  cart,  transport 


latar,  put  on  laths 

mezurar,  measure 
pescar,  fish 


desconoisedor,  ignorant 
mordedor,  biting 
naisedor,  to  be  born 
parcedor,  pardoning 
pertanhedor,  to  belong  to 
ponhedor,  sharp,  pointed 
sabcdor,  knowing 
sorzedor,  gushing 
volvedor,  stirring,  agile 

1  For  pasabarrador  p.  564,  n.  1. 


desconoiser,  be  ignorant 
mordre,  bite 
naiser,  be  born 
parcer,  pardon,  spare 
pertanher,  belong 
ponher,  prick 
saber,  know 
sorzer,  gush  forth 
volvcr,  turn 


t  Another  interesting  adjective  found  only  in  the  feminine  is  encan- 
tairitz,  enchanting,  which  conies  from  the  Lat.  incantatrix,  the  feminine 
form  of  incantator,  not  incantatorius.  This  clear  example  of  a  noun 
used  as  an  adjective,  quite  the  reverse  of  the  usual  process,  makes  it  seem 
possible  *hat  some  of  the  other  adjectives  given  above  may  have  been 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


283 


Under  -IDOR,  there  are  the  following  ones,  many  of 
them  derived  from  the  verb  venir  and  its  compounds, 
and  expressing  regularly  futurity: 


avenidor,  future,  bound  to  happen 

devenidor,  future,  bound  to  hap- 
pen 

eisidor,  about  to  be  born 

endevenidor,  having  to  happen 
(possible) 

escremidor,  cautious,  prudent 

fenidor,  about  to  end 
moridor,  about  to  die 
peridor,  about  to  perish 
procezidor,  about  to  proceed 
venidor,  coming,  future 


avenir,  happen 

deventr,  happen,  become 

eisir,  be  born 
endevenir,  happen 

escremir,  fight,  take  care  of  one- 
self 
fenir,  end 
morir,  die 
perir,  perish 
procezir,  proceed 
venir,  come 


Then  come  the  words  containing  -ADOR,  -EDOR, 
and  -IDOR,  used  passively.  These  words  generally  show 
the  possibility  of  a  thing's  being  done,  and  sometimes  a 
thing  about  to  be  done.  The  force  here  is  almost  exactly 
equal  to  -ABLE.     Under  -ADOR,  are  found: 


aplicador,  to  be  applied,  destined 
amasar,  to  be  gathered 
blasmador,  blameable 
cantador,  singable 
coltivador,  tillable 
cornensador,  to  be  begun 
condemnador,  to  be  condemned 
deliurador,  to  be  despatched 
demandador,  requirable 
deputador,  determinable 
derocador,  to  be  taken  down 
despachador,  despatchable 
deter menador,  determinable 
donador,  to  be  given 


aplicar,  apply 
amasar,  gather 
hlasmar,  blame 
cantar,  sing 
colHvar,  cultivate 
comensar,  begin 
condemnar,  condemn 
deliurar,  deliver,  despatch 
demandar,  ask,  require 
deputar,  depute 
derocar,  overturn 
despachar,  despatch 
determenar,  determine 
donar,  give 


nouns  originally.  Thus  ensenhador  and  creador  exist  also  as  nouns  with 
feminines  in  -AIRITZ.  As  the  feminine  form  of  the  adjectives  listed 
above  is  not  given,  it  is  impossible  to  state  with  certainty  their  origin. 
Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  amador  <.amatorius. 


284 


Word-Formation  in  Proven5AL 


doptador,  to  be  feared 
empauzador,  taxable 
enlevador,  raisable 
escuzador,  excusable 
eslimador,  appraisable 
explicador,  to  be  explained 
gnrdador,  observable 
gitador,  removable 
governador,  governable 
jurador,  to  be  sworn 
jutjador,  judgeable 
lauzador,  praiseworthy 
levador,  raisable 
liurador,  deliverable 
manjador,  edible 
maridador,  marriageable 
moderador,  to  be  determined 
murador,  to  be  walled  up 
nomador,  nom{i)nador,  to  be 

named 
obrador,  to  be  manufactured 
onrador,  to  be  honored 
ostador,  to  be  removed 
pagador,  payable 
pauzador,  to  be  applied  or  fixed 
percanlador,  to  be  administered 
pezador,  to  be  weighed 
plantador,  fertile  (capable  of  being 

planted) 
porlndor,  portable 
prepauzador,  to  be  presented 
p7-estador,  to  be  loaned  or  paid 
prezentador,  to  be  offered 
prononciador ,\  to  be  pronounced 


doptar,  doubt,  fear 
empauzar,  tax 
enlevar,  raise 
escuzar,  excuse 
estiinar,  appraise 
explicar,  explain 
gardar,  observe 
gitar,  throw  aside 
governar,  govern 
jurar,  swear 
juijar,  judge 
lauzar,  praise 
levar,  raise 
liurar,  deliver 
manjar,  eat 
maridar,  marry 
moderar,  moderate 
murar,  wall  up 
nomar,  nom(i)nar,  name 

obrar,  manufacture 
onrar,  honor 
ostar,  take  away 
pagar,  pay 
pauzar,  fix,  establish 
percantar,  officiate,  serve 
pezar,  weigh 
plantar,  plant 

portnr,  carry 

prepauzar,  present,  submit 
preslar,  lend 
prezentar,  offer 
prononciar,  pronounce 


Under  -EDOR,   the  following  adjectives  with  passive 
force  are  found: 


combatedor,  to  be  fought 
cometedor,  committable 
conoisedor,  determinable 


combatre,  fight 
cometre,  commit 
conoiser,  know 


t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin,  examinador.     See  Cooper,  160. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


285 


convertedor,    changeable    (instead 

of  convertidor) 
crezedor,  credible 
defetidedor,  defensible 
despendedor,  spendable 
detenedor,  detainable 
encorredor,  incurrible 
endizedor,  to  be  imposed 
entendedor,  intelligible 
escrivedor,  to  be  written 
fazedor,  possible  to  accomplish 
fendedor,  splittable 
mentavedor,^  to  be  mentioned 
metedor,  to  be  placed 
movedor,  movable 
noncrezedor,-  incredible 
percebedor,  to  be  collected 
perdedor,  which  will  be  lost 
prendedor,  to  be  taken 
proferedor,  to  be  pronounced 
temedor,  dangerous 
vendedor,  saleable 


convertir,  change 

crezer,  believe 
defendre,  defend 
despendre,  spend 
detener,  detain 
encorre,  incur 
*endezir  for  endire,  impose 
entendre,  understand 
*escriver  for  escriure,  write 
*fazer  for  faire,  make 
fendre,  split 

*mentaver  for  mentaicre,  mention 
metre,  place 
mover,  move 

{non)crezer,  (not  to)  believe 
percebre,  collect  (a  tax) 
perdre,  lose 
prendre,  take 
proferre,  pronounce 
temer,  fear 
vendre,  sell 


And  under  -IDOR,    the  following  passive  adjectives 
formed  on  verbs  ending  in  -ir: 


dirigidor,  dirigeable 
divizidor,  di\'isible 
elegidor,  eligible 

enqueridor,  to  be  investigated  (in- 
stead of  -EDOR) 
esclarzidor,  to  be  glorified 
establidor,  to  be  established 
estatuidor,  to  be  determined 
exigidor,  requirable 
nonauzidor,-  unheard  of 
ordidor,  weavable 
partidor,  to  be  shared 

'  See  also  hybrids,  p.  581. 

-  Noncrezer  and  nonauzir  cannot  be  said  to  be  found  in  Prov., 
although  they  may  have  existed,  just  as  noncaler  did.  Nonauzidor 
and  noncrezedor  appear,  therefore,  to  henon+auzidor  or  crezedor,  that  is, 
compound  words.     See  Part  IV,  chap,  ii,  p.  570. 


dirigir,  direct 

divizir,  divide 

eligir,  elect 

enquerre,  seek,  but  also  enquerir 

esclarzir,  brighten 
establir,  establish 
estatuir,  determine 
exigir,  exact 

{non)auzir,  (not  to)  hear 
ordir,  weave 
partir,  share 


.286  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

prefigido)-,  to  be  previously  fixed  prefigir,  fix 

prezumidor,  presumable  prezumir,  presume 

punidor,  punishable,  to  be  pun-  punir,  punish 
ished 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  above  lists  that  without 
exception  the  suffixes  -ADOR,  -EDOR,  and  -IDOR  are 
added  to  verb-stems,  and  that  convertedor  and  enqueridor 
are  the  only  words  at  all  exceptional  in  formation.  In 
all  other  cases,  -ADOR  is  added  to  verbs  in  -ar,  -EDOR 
to  verbs  in  -er  or  -re,  and  -IDOR  to  verbs  in  -ir.  A 
very  common  meaning  is  that  of  some  act  to  be  done. 
Compounds  are  found  in  noncrezedor  and  nonauzidor. 

One  word  is  apparently  not  formed  on  a  verb  but  a 
noun  or  adjective: 
mejanador,  to  be  continued  mejan,  in  the  middle;  middle 

This  word,  like  ensenhador  and  creador  treated  above  may 
have  been  a  noun  originally. 

-AI(S) 

It  is  necessary  to  mention  here  the  ending  -AIS  on 
account  of  its  occurrence  in  a  number  of  words,  although 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  ever  really  a  Provengal 
suffix.  The  only  words  in  which  there  is  any  probability 
of  its  having  been  so  used  are: 

lecais,^  dainty  lee,  dainty  person;  fawner 

morals,-  Moorish  mor,  Moor 

>  Levy  gives  one  example  of  the  form  lecai  in  the  accusative  case, 
singular.     All  the  other  examples,  however,  have  lecais. 

2  This  seems  to  be  a  real  example  of  a  Prov.  suffix  -AIS,  used,  for 
some  reason  or  other,  instead  of  the  usual  suffixes  of  nationality,  -ES  and 
-ESC.  Most  of  the  other  words  with  this  ending  -AIS  have  contempt- 
uous force,  and  a  depreciative  suffix  -AIS  may  have  been  supposed  to 
exist  and  have  been  here  substituted  for  -ESC.  There  is  a  Lat.  word 
morax,  which  would  give  morais,  but  it  is  formed  on  morior  and  means 


Formation  of  Adjectives  287 

-AL,  IL 

The  Provengal  suffix  -AL  has  already  been  treated 
under  the  nouns/  where  it  was  seen  that  most  of  the 
formations  were  nothing  but  adjectives  used  substantively 
in  Provengal  itself.  -AL  represents  the  Latin  -ALIS,  a 
suffix  used  to  form  adjectives  on  nouns,  and  exceedingly 
common  in  the  popular  language.  Its  use  was  very  broad 
and  varied:  perhaps  most  commonly  it  served  to  indicate 
a  similarity  or  resemblance  to  the  noun  to  which  it  was 
attached,  as  ahisal  (formed  on  a6is)=  like  an  abyss,  or 
deep.  It  also  meant  "belonging"  or  "pertaining  to,"  and 
denoted  beside,  suitability  and  relationship.  In  short, 
it  became  one  of  the  principal  adjectival  suffixes,  in 
Romance  as  well  as  in  Latin.  Olcott-  notes  also  its  use 
in  the  official  terminology,  particularly  in  the  inscriptions, 
to  denote  rank,  which  use  is  also  found  represented  to  a 
certain  extent  in  Provencal. 

-AL  is  added  to  nouns  in  Provengal  in: 

abisal,  deep  abis,  abyss 

aceiral,  of  steel  acier,  steel 
agraral,  cultivated.' 

alodial,  allodial  alodi,  allode 

aventural,  enterprising,  bold  aventura,  adventure 

basional,  pertaining  to  a  line  baston,  line 
boaral,^  belonging  to  oxen;  rough     bou,  ox 


"delaying."  Still,  if  it  did  persist  until  Prov.  times,  it  may  have  helped 
in  the  development  of  morais,  Moorish. 

The  other  words  ending  in  -AIS  are  all  of  Lat.  origin,  and  are  as 
follows:  biais,  slope,  slant,  shift  (a  noun),  possibly  from  bifax;  punais, 
stinking,  probably  from  putmasius  or  putinaceus ;  malvais,  probably 
from  malevatius,  though  its  origin  is  somewhat  uncertain;  and  verais, 
true,  probably  from  verax,  -acem,  though  the  forms  of  the  accusative 
masculine,  verai,  and  the  feminine  veraia  are  difficult  to  explain. 

1  P.  63.  2  See  Olcott,  227. 

3  See  double  suffixes,  p.  398,  n.  1 ;  agraral  used  as  a  noun  is  also  given 
on  p.  64,  above.  The  formations  in  -ARAL  are  treated  in  the  note  to 
this  word  given  there  as  well  as  under  double  suffixes. 


288 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


cabal,  capital,  cxcollent 

calendal,  calendal 

campal,  "in  the  open"  (found 
only  in  the  phrase  balalha 
campal,  pitched  battle) 

canorgal,  belonging  to  yearly  tax 


cantonal,  pertaining  to  a  corner 

caral,^  square 

caresmal,  of  Lent,  lenten 

cartaironal,^  pertaining  to  a  quar- 
ter-pound 

cavaleiral,^  belonging  to  knights 

colpal,  guilty 

comhnl,  lying  in  a  valley 

comtal,  pertaining  to  a  count 

consolal,*  consular 

coral,  heartrending 

costumal,  customary 

diablal,  diabolical 

diaral,^  daily 

dictional,  concerning  words 

domergal,  of  the  domain;  of  Sun- 
day'. Dotnergue  is  found  mean- 
ing Sunday,  but  not  with  the 
meaning  of  domain.  Domergal 
looks  like  *dominicalis. 


cap,  head 
calenda,  calends 
camp,  field 


canorga,  canonicate;  canonry, 
prebend  (having  a  yearly 
tax  ?) 

canton,  corner 

caire,  square 

caresma.  Lent 

cartairon,  quarter-pound 

cavalier,  knight 
colpa,  guilt 
comba,  valley 
comte,  count 
consol,  consul 
cor,  heart 
costuma,  custom 
diable,  devil 

diction,  diction 


'  The  form  carat  instead  of  cairal  is  worthy  of  note.  Whether  com- 
ing direct  from  the  Lat.  qiiadralis,  or  derived  from  caire,  cairat  would 
be  the  regular  form.  Quadrate,  wine-measure,  is  found  in  Du  Cange. 
In  late  learned  words,  d  did  not  change  to  i,  and  quadrate  may  have  had 
some  influence  on  the  form  of  carol. 

2  See  also  double  suffixes,  p.  386,  n.  1. 

3  One  of  the  verj^  few  words  having  -eir-  as  the  first  part  of  a  double 
suffix  instead  of  -air-.     See  double  suffixes,  p.  386,  n.  2,  for  explanation. 

*  This  word  seems  to  contain  an  assimilation  of  r  to  I,  and  represent 
consotarK  consularis. 

5  See  double  suffixes,  p.  398,  n.  1.  Dialis  is  found  in  Oicott,  230,  and 
as  diarius  is  also  Lat.,  the  conditions  that  formed  agraral  are  reproduced. 
See  also  agrarat  under  nouns,  p.  64. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


289 


eclezial,  ecclesiastic.  Eclezia  is  not 
found  in  Provencal,  but  only  a 
more  popular  development  of 
ecclesia,  church.  Eclezial  is  cer- 
tainly a  learned  formation  in 
ProvenQal  on  the  Latin  ecclesia. 
-AL  could  therefore  be  used  in 
learned  as  well  as  in  popular 
words. 

esciental,  sensible 

esporlal,  belonging  to  the  esporla 

estorial,  historical 

ferial,  ferial 

figural,  figurative 

(Olcott  gives  figuraliter, 

filal,  spinnable 

fogal,  fiery 

fondal,  deep 

fonsal,  bottom 

fontal,  of  a  spring 

frairal,  brotherly 

fumal,  smoky 

gregorial,  Gregorian 

linhatjal,-  ancestral 

lobal,  greedy 

mairal,  principal 

inanal,  of  the  hand 

martirial,  bloodthirsty 

mercadal,  mercantile 

me{z)alhal,  worth  a  "me(z)alha" 

molinal,  of  a  mill 

muzical,^  musical 

novenal,  pertaining  to  a  "no vena" 

novial,  nuptial 

nuechal,  nocturnal 

oblial,  subject  to  the  "oblia" 

onsal,  weighing  an  ounce 

organal  (found  in  the  phrase  vena 
o.,  meaning  jugular  vein) 


escien{t),  knowledge 

esporla,  a  tax 

estoria,  history 

feri,  weekday 

figura,  figure 

though  not  figuralis) 

fil,  thread 

foe,  fire 

fon{d),  depth 

fans,  bottom,  depth 

fon(t),  spring 

fraire,  brother 

fum,  smoke 

Gregori,  Gregory 

linhatje,  Uneage 

loba,  wolf 

maire,  mother 

man,  hand 

martiri,  torture 

mercat,  market 

me{z)alha,  a  coin 

molin,  mill 

muzica,  music 

novena,  a  religious  exercise 

novia,  bride 

nuech,  night 

oblia,  a  tax 

onsa,  ounce 


1  P.  23. 


2  See  double  suflBxes,  p.  387. 


'  Muzical  is  found  in  many  of  the  Romance  languages,  but  inusicalis 
is  not  found  in  Lat. 


290 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


palntal,  a  span  long 

paludal,  swampj' 

paponal,  belonging  to  a  grand- 
father 

parofianal,  parochial 

patacal,  worth  a  "patac" 

patrial,  belonging  to  one's  native 
land 

poblal,  public 

pogezal,  worth  a  "poges" 

polgal  (found  in  phrase  anguila  p. 
meaning  "swamp-eel") 

ponhal,  large  as  the  fist 

porcariaal-  (found  in  phrase  dart  p., 
a  kind  of  spear) 

procesio7uil,^  of  a  procession 

profechal,  useful 

provizional,^  provisional 

questal,  subject  to  the  "questa" 

terral,  of  earth 

venal,  veinous 

vergonhal,  shameful 

vilanal,  f  rustic 


pnbna,  span 
paint,  swamp 
papon,  grandfather 

parofian,  parishioner 
patac,  a  coin 
patria,  native  land 

poble,  people 
poges,  a  coin 
ipolga),  polgar,^  thumb 

pouh,  fist 
pore,  pig 

procesion,  procession 
profech,  use,  profit 
provizion,  provision 
questa,  a  tax 
terra,  earth 
vena,  vein 
vergonha,  shame 
vilan,  villein 


1  The  anguila  polgal  was  a  short,  thick  eel,  probably  shaped  some- 
what like  the  thumb.  If  polga  ever  meant  thumb,  which  is  not  certain 
(see  Levy,  VI,  430)  but  probable,  (compare  other  formations,  as  polgada), 
polgal  was  an  adjective  meaning  "like  the  thumb,"  formed  on  it.  Other- 
wise polgal  and  polgada  are  difficult  to  explain. 

2  This  is  a  most  puzzling  word.  Thomas  {Nouv.  Ess.,  92)  suggests 
that  porcarisal  may  be  an  elongated  form  of  porcariz  representing  por- 
caricius,  thus  supposing  a  triple  suffix  added  to  pore.  But  in  all  the 
adjectives  ending  in  -ARICIUS  this  suffix  has  become  -AREZ,  as  in 
*bastarez,  cesarez,  crocarez,  etc.  We  should  expect,  therefore,  porcarez 
instead  of  porcariz,  and,  with  -AL  added,  a  form  *porcarezal.  It  seems 
possible  that  porcarisal  is  derived  from  porcaritz  +-AL,  the  porcaritz 
being  formed  of  jiorc,  pig,  and  aritz,  hedgehog,  just  as  porcespin,  porcu- 
pine, was  formed.  Porcarisal  is  always  used  with  dart  and  the  dart 
porcarisal  may  have  been  the  spear  pertaining  to  (or  used  in  hunting) 
the  *porcaritz  ( =wild  boar?). 

'  These  words  are  found  in  late  Lat.,  though  a  Prov.  simple  word 
also  exists. 


t  Also,  of  Lat.   origin,   canaK.canalis;   cervigaKcervicalis;   cruaK. 
crudelis    (with  change   of   suffix) ;  feminal  <  feminalis,  festal  <  festalis, 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


291 


Besides,  however,  the  formations  on  nouns  just  given, 

there  are  a  number  of  words  also  that  are  formed  on  adjec- 
tives, and  in  most  of  these,  as  might  be  expected,  the 

suffix  brings  Kttle  perceptible  change  of  meaning  to  the 

simple  word.     It  is  merely  a  case  of  the  addition  of  a 

suffix  for  a  greater  length,  of  the  kind  that  has  been  met 

mth  so  often: 

a{d)versal,  adverse 

cincal,^  fifth 

detzal,^  tenth 

diversal,  diverse 

divinal,  di\'ine 

francal,  free 

frejal,  hard.  If  the  Provencal /re^, 
Uke  the  Latin  frigidiis,  ever 
meant  "stiff,"  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty in  the  meaning  of  frejal. 

frescal,  fresh 

inumanal,  inhuman, 

majorat,  principal,  superior 

maritimal,  maritime 

ochal,^  eighth 

perfondal,  deep 

poblical,'^  public 

prosmal,  next 

quintal,  one-fifth  of  the  produce 
of  which  is  to  be  paid  as  a  tax 

quinzal,^  fifteenth 


a{d)vers,  averse 
cine,  five 
deiz,  ten 
divers,  diverse 
divin,  divine 
franc,  free 
freg,  cold 


fresc,  fresh 
inuman,  inhuman 
major,  larger,  principal 
maritim,  maritime 
och,  eight 
perfon(d),  deep 
poblic,  pubhc 
prosme,  next 
quint,  fifth 


quinze,  fifteen 

1  In  cincal,  detzal,  ochal,  and  quinzal  the  adjective  of  number  changes 
from  cardinal  to  ordinal. 

2  There  is  also  a  form  poblejal.  This  may  have  been  formed  on  the 
verb  poblejar,  because  of  confusion  in  the  formation  of  poblical,  beside 
which  the  verb  poblicar  as  well  as  the  adjective  poblic  existed. 


lacrimaKilacrimalis;  mairenal,  maternaK  maierna/is;  monacal,  monkish 
<monachalis;  pairena(l),  paternal  <  paternalis ;  paironal,  patronal  < 
patronalis;  penal,  penaK penaKs;  presbiteral,  priestlyK presbyteralis. 

Other  more  obscure  words  but  probably  also  of  Lat.  origin  are 
faichal,  joined  together  (Kfascialiis);  fasial  and  enfasial,  feasible,  and 
infeasible </acmZis  and  infacialis{?);  gauzinhal  (in  the  phrase  estela  g.  = 
morning  star)  obscure,  but  probably  connected  with  gauzir,  rejoice;  and 
unialis,  vinique<*MnicaZxs  ? 


292  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

terrennl,  terrestrial  terren,  terrestrial 

umnnal,  human  uman,  human 

In  the  following  words  -AL  is  added  to  a  preposition: 

foral,  outer  for,  out  of 

jostal,  nearby  josta,  near 

-IL 

-IL  will  be  given  here  with  -AL,  as  was  done  with  the 
two  suffixes  when  they  formed  nouns.  With  -IL,  as  with 
-AL,  the  formation  of  adjectives  was,  of  course,  the  original 
use,  the  Latin  -ALIS  and  -ILIS  having  just  about  the 
same  uses  and  giving  almost  the  same  meanings.  The 
suffix  is  not  so  important  in  Romance  generally  in  its 
adjectival  use  as  -AL,  however;  and  many  of  the  words  in 
Provengal  have  found  a  special  use  for  the  suffix.  It  seems 
to  be  added  to  nouns  denoting  persons,  especially  to  those 
indicating  position  or  rank  in  life,  and  to  have  formed 
adjectives  on  them.  Almost  all  of  the  words  in  Provengal, 
and  many  in  Spanish  are  of  this  kind,  and  their  starting- 
point  seems  to  have  been  the  form  femenil,^  a  dissimila- 
tion of  femininus,  together  with  such  adjectives  applying 
to  persons  as  servllis  and  hostilis.  The  list  of  Provengal 
words  is  as  follows: 

ahadil,  concerning  an  abbot  abat,  abbot 

agradil,  agreeable  agrat,  satisfaction 

barnil,  noble  bar,  baron,  knight 

clercil,  clerical  clerc,  clerk 

estadil,  settled,  dwelling  estat,  state 

fcmll,  womanly,  feminine  feme,  woman 

gasconil,  Gascon  Gascon,  Gascon 

laironil,  seems  to  mean  "stolen" 
from  the  example,  though  "per- 
taining to  robbers"  would  be 
more  to  be  expected  in  the  ad- 
jective, lairon,  robber 

»  Meyer-Lubke,  II,  526. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  293 

maestril,  masterly  maestre,  master 

mongil,  monkish  monge,  monk 

paironil,  paternal  pairon,  father 

payanil,  pagan  payan,  pagan 

preveiril,  priestly  preveire,  priest 

prioril,  pertaining  to  priors  prior,  prior 

senhoril,  lordly,  seignorial  senhor,  lord 

sobresenhoril,  superior  sobresenhor,  overlord 

volpil,^  cowardly,  fox-like  volp,  fox 

and  formed  on  an  adjective  without  change  of  meaning: 

boriil,  good-natured  bon.,  good 

-AN     • 

The  adjectival  suffix  -AN,  derived  from  a  Latin  -ANUS 
is  found  joined  to  some  nouns  in  Provencal  (as  might 
be  expected  from  the  usual  Latin  process  of  formation, 
seen  in  urbanus,  mundanus,  etc.);  and  here  it  regularly 
expresses  the  idea  of  "belonging,"  which  existed  in  these 
original  Latin  w^ords.  Although  the  suffix  also  formed 
nouns,  under  which  heading  it  has  already  been  met, 
even  in  these  cases,  it  formed,  probably,  at  the  beginning, 
adjectives.  Thus,  in  Latin,  castellanus  has  both  the 
meaning  of  "belonging  to  a  castle"  and  the  occupant 
of  (or  person  belonging  to)  a  castle,  which  meaning  of 
person,  therefore  occupant,  the  adjective  regularly  took 
when  used  substantively. 

Another  use  of  the  suffix,  however,  as  early  as  Latin, 
is  the  forming  of  adjectives  on  adjectives,  and  here,  as 
usual,  the  addition  of  the  suffix  brought  no  change  of 
meaning.     It  was  merely  tacked  on  for  greater  length. 


t  Also  of  Lat.  origin,  sextil,  s\s.th.  <sextilis. 

Likewise  there  is  a  word  not  a  Prov.  formation,  of  some  interest. 
This  is  estril,  hostile,  untoward(  ?).  It  is  obscure  in  form  and  meaning. 
Levy  suggests  as  source  strigilis,  scraper,  which  would  do  phonetically, 
but  it  seems  unlikely  that  it  should  be  used  as  an  adjective.  It  might, 
however,  come  from  hostilis  under  the  influence  of  strigilis. 


294  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Thus,  in  Latin,  we  may  find  niedianus  beside  medius, 
and  probably  also,  from  the  evidence  of  the  Romance 
languages,  we  should  find  *certanus  beside  certus.  This 
process  has  been  continued  in  Provengal,  and  the  suffix 
has  also  been  added  to  prepositions  and  to  adverbs  to 
turn  them  into  adjectives,  although  this  process  too,  prob- 
ably began  in  Latin.  Another  appearance  of  -AN  is  in 
the  present  participle  of  verbs. 
-AN  is  found  added  to  nouns  in: 

albcin,  white  alba,  dawn 

aurnn,  foolish  '  aura,  air 

coraljan,  resolved,  courageous  coralje,  courage 

foresian,^  strange,  foreign  forest,  forest 

joian,  joyous  joi,  joy 

rozan,  f  pink  roza,  rose 

The  formations  on  adjectives,  mostly  with  absolutely 

no  change  in  meaning  from  the  simple  word,  are: 

amaran,  bitter  aniar,  bitter 

allan,^  haughty  alt,  high 

haian,^  silly,  insipid  hai,  bay,  brown 

'  Cf.  the  Fr.  forestier,  It.  forestiere,  Sp.  forastero,  in  which  -ARIUS 
is  seen,  and  see  Du  Cange,  foresterius.  It  would  seem  that  when  -AN 
was  added,  forest  was  still  an  adjective  meaning  outside  of  ( =forestis 
from  foris.)  The  difference  of  the  Prov.  suffix  from  that  found  in  all  the 
other  languages  is  worthy  of  note. 

2  Found  in  Lat.  as  nouns,  altanus  meaning  southwest  wind,  and 
solarium  meaning  nightshade  (a  plant). 

3  Here  the  change  in  meaning,  if  brought  about  by  the  suffix,  is 
not  very  clear.  It  is  not  certain,  however,  that  the  word  is  formed  as 
given  above.  Baian  might  be  the  present  participle  of  a  Prov.  verb 
*haiar  (cf.  the  Fr.  aboyer,  bark,  O.  Fr.  abaier  from  *adbadiare,  probably 
derived  from  badare,  gape).  Now,  if  for  Prov.  we  might  suppose  a 
source  *badiare,  instead  of  *adbadiare,  but  likewise  derived  from  badare, 
it  would  account  for  *baiar;  and  baian,  gaping,  the  present  participle  of 
such  a  verb  might  alone  have  survived,  just  as  in  Mod.  Fr.  we  find  in 
common  use  only  the  present  participle  beant,  gaping. 


t  Also  adulteran,  which,  judging  from  its  form,  must  be  either  of 
Lat.  origin,  or  a  learned  imitation.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Lat.  diction- 
aries or  word-lists.     Cf.,  however,  adulterinus. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  295 

dolsan,  sweet  dols,  sweet 

esqtieran,  refractory  esquer,  left 

estremairan,^  extreme  estremier,  extreme 

lonhan,  far,  removed  lonh,  far 

tnajoran,  higher,  superior  major,  larger,  superior 

primeiran,^  first  primier,  first 

prosman,  next  prosme,  next 

santan,  saintly  san{t),  saintly 

seguran,  certain  segur,  certain 

solan,-  solitary  sol,  alone 

tarzan,^^  late  (tart,  late?) 

On  prepositions,  the  following  words  are  formed : 

dereiran,  rear  deriere,  behind 

foran,  outer,  exterior  for,  out  of 

juzan,-t\  lower  jus,  below 

-ANH 

The  only  case  of  -ANH  appears  to  be  grifanh,^  scowling, 
but  it  is  not  certain  that  it  represents  -ANEUS  as  do 
most  of  the  nouns  in  -ANH. 

'  See  double  suffixes,  p.  402. 

2  See  note  2,  p.  294. 

3  Probably  Lat.,  from  *tardanus. 

*  See  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  XXII,  49,  for  formation  and  meanings  of 
the  word. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  are  meijan,  intermediate  <mediani<s,  and  tersan, 
tertian  <tertianus.     Probably  also  certan,  certain  <cer ton ws. 

tt  Words  probably  formed  in  Lat.,  but  irregularly,  some  of  them  on 
adverbs,  are  lonhdan<longitanus  from  longiter{  f)  from  which  by  analogy 
propitanus,  giving  jyropdan,  near;  and  soteiran  and  sotran<sub(  err  arms. 

Other  words  are :  famolan  (prohahly  for  famolen<*fatnule7iius)  and 
grafan,  sad,  gloomy  (  ?),  an  obscure  word.  Mistral  gives  Grafan  as  a  family 
name. 

Words  Hke  dezacordan,  discordant,  esforsan,  strong,  etc.,  are  simply 
present  participles  of  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation.  (For  those  of  the 
second  conjugation,  see  p.  305,  n.  3.)  Other  words  of  this  kind,  in  which 
the  participle  is  used  as  an  adjective  are  maestrejan,  clever,  perilhan,  in 
danger,  pezan,  troubled,  and  profechan,  useful. 


296  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

-AR 

The  Provengal  suffix  -AR  represents  the  Latin  -ARIS, 
which  was  exactly  like  -ALIS,  already  studied  under  its 
Provengal  form  -AL.  In  meaning,  the  two  suffixes  were 
interchangea])le,  and  the  one  used  depended,  therefore,  on 
the  word  to  which  it  was  added.  If  this  word  contained 
an  I,  -AR  was  to  he  used,  and  if  an  r,  -AL  was  added. ^ 
This  rule,  however,  had  lost  its  force  long  before  Provencal 
times,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  -ALIS,  which  has  prac- 
tically supplanted  -ARIS  in  Provengal,  especially  in  the 
original  adjectival  use.  It  is  found  in  very  few  new  words. 
Joined  to  nouns,  it  is  seen  in: 

canelar,  fluted  canela,  pipe 

favar    (in   phrase   colomb  favar=     Java,  bean 

ring-dove) .    The  bird  was  given 

this  name  because  of  being  fond 

of  beans. 
maiselar  (in  phrase  den  m.),  molar     maisela,  jaw 
molinar,  belonging  to  a  mill  molin,  mill 

miliar  (in  phrase  bestia  m.),  mule      nml,  mule 

Added  to  adjectives,  the  suffix  of  course  gives  no 
change  of  meaning: 

novelar,  new  novel,  new 

prosmar,  next  prosme,  next 

The  suffix  appears  to  be  added  to  an  adverb  in : 

pluzar,  plural  plus,  more 

-ART,  -ORI 

Several  words  ending  in  -ARI  and  also  -ORI  may  well 
be  mentioned  here.  These  are,  of  course,  only  learned 
developments  of  Latin  words  ending  in  -ARIUS  and 
-ORIUS. 

1  See  Olcott,  227. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  297 


In  ARI-,  we  find : 

feudari,  feiidatari,  feudal 
-plenari,  full,  complete 

In  -ORI,  there  are: 

desmeritori,  undeserving 
estadori,  living 


-ART 


The  suffix  -ART,  from  a  Germanic  -ARD  or  -HARD, 
has  ah'eady  been  treated  under  the  nouns,  where  its 
original  adjectival  use  was  shown.  In  fact,  this  use  was 
very  clear  in  most  of  the  words  there  given.  Words  that 
have  retained  their  adjectival  use  are  as  follows: 

FORMED    ON   NOtJNS 

galhart,  gay  (Celtic  stem  ?) 

testart,  obstinate  testa,  head 

FORMED    ON   ADJECTIVES    (nO    CHANGE    IN   MEANING) 

moisart,  false,  deceitful  iJiois,  false,  deceitful 

FORMED    ON   VERBS 

auzart,  bold,  daring  auzar,  dare 

muzart,^  loitering,  dawdling 

pilhart,^  thievish 

trefart,  f  deceitful  irej'a,  false  ? 

1  Previously  given  under  nouns.     See  p.  139-40. 


t  There  are  also  two  words  of  more  obscure  formation:  Hart  and 
pifai-t. 

Liart  means  variegated,  and  appears  to  apply  to  horses  and  to  mean 
"with  hair  of  different  colors  or  "dappled." 

For  Hart  see  Boehmer,  Rom.  Stud.,  I,  264.  Ott,  Etude  sur  les 
couleurs  en  ancien  frauQais,  p.  46,  translates  the  word  as  "gray."  It  is 
supposed  to  be  from  ligaranxim,  from  liga,  dregs. 

P  if  art,  thick-bellied,  may  have  been  influenced  by  the  Italian  piffero 
in  its  form.  It  seems  to  be  derived  from  pipar,  to  play  the  flute,  or  from 
pipa,  flute,  the  meaning  of  the  adjectiv^j  being  "with  a  stomach  like  that 
of  one  who  plays  the  flute." 


298  Word-Formation  in  Pkoven^al 

-AT 

Tlier(^  i\ro  very  many  adjectives  cMulins  in  -AT  in 
Proven^-al,  coming  from  the  Latin  -ATUS,  the  past 
participle  of  verbs  in  -are.  When,  however,  these  words 
remain  past  participles  in  meaning,  as  amat,  loved  < 
nmat)is,  they  have  no  reason  to  be  treated  here,  but  rather 
under  verbs,  even  when  the  verb  from  wliich  they  were 
derived  was  a  Proven(,'aI  formation.  It  is  only  when  they 
are  real  adjectives  that  their  place  is  here;  and  these 
words  may  properly  be  regarded  as  examples  of  adjectives 
formed  by  means  of  suffixes,  for  although  these  adjectives 
are  generally  formed  by  adding  -AT  to  the  stems  of  verbs, 
as  would  be  expected  from  the  origin  of  -AT,  quite  fre- 
(luently  -AT  is  added  to  nouns  instead.  Nor  is  it  diffi- 
cult to  see  the  reason  for  this  extension  in  use.  \'ery 
frequently,  a  noun  corresponding  in  form  existed  beside 
the  verb,  and  in  the  vulgar  speech  could  be  mistaken  for 
the  base  to  which  -AT  was  attached.  Meyer-Liibke 
gives  the  example  of  coronatus  existing  beside  corona  and 
coronare,  in  which  it  would  be  natural  to  see  a  formation 
on  the  common  corona  rather  than  the  much  less  usual  verb 
coronare.  At  any  rate,  the  formations  on  nouns  were  very 
frequent  in  Vulgar  Latin,  if  not  in  the  classic  writers.  In 
Provengal,  there  are  not  very  many  adjectives  in  -AT  that 
are  known  to  be  formed  on  nouns,  ])ut  there  are  many 
cases,  like  the  Latin  coronatus,  in  which  a  verb  and  a 
noun  both  exist  beside  the  derived  word.  And  although 
most  of  these  words  are  in  all  probability  merely  past 
participles  used  as  adjectives — or  -AT  added  to  verlv 
stems — in  some  cases,  the  verb  may  have  been  a  later 
formation  than  the  word  in  -ATUS.^  In  view  of  all  these 
facts,  then,  it  seems  better  to  treat  -AT  as  an  adjectival 

>  Olcott,  245. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  299 

suffix  than  as  a  past  participle  used  here  as  an  adjective.^ 
The  meaning  of  the  suffix  was  generally  to  denote  posses- 
sion— a  possession  of  some  quality  or  thing  denoted  by  the 
simple  word,  verb  or  noun.  It  was  added,  then,  to  verbs 
and  to  nouns,  and  it  was  also  used,  in  some  cases,  only 
when  a  prefix  was  used  at  the  same  time  with  the  word. 

The  suffix  will  be  treated  and  classified  according  to 
the  various  kinds  of  formations  which  it  made,  as:  the 
cases  where  it  was  (1)  added  to  verb-stems;  (2)  added  to 
verb-stems,  but  only  in  connection  with  a  prefix  used 
at  the  same  time ;  (3)  added  to  nouns ;  (4)  added  to  nouns 
together  with  a  prefix. 

1.  -AT  is  added  to  verb-stems  in  the  following  list. 
Many  of  the  derived  words  had  prefixes,  yet  these  were 
not  used  in  the  formation  of  the  adjective,  but  existed 
in  the  verb  on  which  it  was  formed. 

abandonat,  generous  abandonar,  allow,  grant,  give  up 

abdurat,  hard,  terrible  abdurar,  undergo,  endure 

acabat,  perfect,  complete  acabar,  complete 

acoratjat,  ready,  determined  acoratjar,  encourage 

acorsat,  swift  acorsar,  urge,  incite^ 

afazendat,  busy  afazendar,  occupy 

aizinat,  fitting,  suitable  aizinar,  arrange 

ajostat,  adjacent  ajostar,^  arrange 

1  Since  all  real  participial  forms  are  omitted,  no  attempt  can  be  made 
here  to  give  a  complete  list  of  the  words  ending  in  -AT  and  -IT.  Ray- 
nouard  does  not  list  past  participle  forms.  The  words  selected  are  taken 
almost  entirely  from  Levy. 

2  The  Donatz  Provensals  (p.  28,  col.  a,  40)  gives  as  a  translation  for 
dcorsar,  "  ad  ciirsum  provocai'e."  The  word  is  listed  in  both  Raynouard 
and  Levy,  but  examples  are  given  of  only  the  past  participle  acorsal. 
This  seems  to  come  to  mean  "swift"  from  the  original  idea  of  "hastened, 
spurred  on." 

5  The  verb,  however,  has  the  different  sense  of  "arrange."  Ajostat 
is  probably  formed  on  josta,  near.  Others  among  these  words  are  also 
probably  parasynthetic  formations,  as  apoderat,  empensat,  descorat,  and 
encolpat,  although  in  all  of  these  cases,  a  corresponding  verb  in  -ar  does 
exist.     See  also  p.  531,  n.  t- 


300 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


apoderat,  mighty 

arendat,  rich 

arrat,  arranged 

asedat,  greedy 

asenai,  sensible 

avenhat,  suitable 

coslumat,  customary 

descorat,  heartless 

descrinat,  with  disheveled  hair 

desfaisonat,  unusual 

despoderat,  powerless 

eiservigat,  with  dislocated  neck 

empensat,  thoughtful 

enclinat,  inclined,  ready,  humble 

encolpat,  guilty 

encorat,  willing,  ready 

encoratjat,  inclined,  willing 

enflamat,    angry    (inflamed    with 

anger) 
enforcal,  forked 
enrahiat,  raging 
ensenhat,  informed,  well  bred 
entestat,  obstinate 
envezat,^  happy 
esajat,  trusty 
escarpiat    (instead     of     escarpit), 

boned 
escobai,  naked 
escollivat ,-  tilled 
escotat,^  cut  out 
escurat,  dark 
escursat,*  shortened 
esglaziat,  murderous 
eslaisat,  impetuous 
esmerat,  pure 


npodcrar,  surpass 
arendar,  rent 

arrar  (se),  provide  oneself  with 
asedar,  be  thirsty 
asenar,  make  intelligible 
avenhar,  happen  (?) 
costumar,  be  accustomed 
descorar,  dissatisfy 
descrinar,  loose  the  hair 
desfaisonar,  distort 
despoderar,  rob  of  power 
eiservigar,  sprain  the  neck(?) 
empensar,  contrive,  invent 
enclinar,  incline 
encolpar,  accuse 
encorar,  touch  the  heart 
encoratjar,  encourage 
enflamar,  inflame 

eyiforcar,  fork 
enrabiar,  rage 
ensenhar,  teach 
entestar,  persist 

esajar,  try,  test 
escarpir,  cut,  slash 

escobar,  sweep,  clean 


escurar,  darken 

esglaziar,  kill 
eslaisar  (se),  hurry 
esmerar,  purify 


■  Not  envezar,  but  only  envezat  is  foviiul  in  the  examples.  Cf.,  how- 
ever, the  O.  Fr.  envoisier  Kinvitiare. 

2  Escoltivar  is  not  found,  but  must  have  existed,  to  give  escoUivamen 
and  escoUivador,  as  well  as  escoltivat.  So  many  independently  formed 
parasyntheta  would  be  extremely  unlikely. 

'  Escotar  is  not  found,  but  cf .  the  Sp.  and  It.  escotar. 

<  Escursar  is  not  found,  but  see  escursa  in  Mistral. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


301 


estirat,  in  distress 

estonat,  confused 

estrunat,^  wild,  savage 

esvarrat,-  confused 

esventat,  floating  in  the  wind 

faisonat,  fine,  well  formed 

figurat,^  allegorical 

for  cat, ^  forked 

frequentat,  frequent 

gotat,  speckled 

greujat,  suffering 

jurat,  under  oath 

lavat,  empty-handed 

listat,  striped 

lizat,  smooth 

maestrat,*  well  wrought,  artistic 

maestrejat,  clever* 

molherat,^  married 

mortificat,  exhausted 

■perilhat,  perilous 

prezat,  able,  capable 

senat,^  intelligent 


estirar,  stretch,  lengthen 
estonar,  stun,  deafen 


esventar,  blow 
faisonar,  fashion 
figurar,  form,  picture 
forcar,  fork 
frequentar,  frequent 
gotar,  drop 
greujar,  injure 
jurar,  swear 
lavar,  wash 
listar,  stripe;  marble 
lizar,  smooth 

maestrejar,  repress,  subdue 
niolherar,  marry 
mortificar,  mortify 
perilhar,  imperil 
prezar,  prize 
senar,  give  sense  to 


All  of  the  words  in  the  above  list  are  apparently 
formed  on  verbs,  and  in  some  of  the  words,  the  participial 
force  rather  than  that  of  the  adjective  may  stand  out. 
The  distinction,  however,  is  a  fine  one,  and  the  line 
between  the  two  classes  of  words  is  hard  to  draw,  as  almost 
any  past  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective.  Words 
with  any  passive  force,   as,   for  example,   amat,   loved, 

1  Seems  to  be  found  only  in  this  form,  though  estrunar  probably 
existed.  It  is  listed  in  both  Raynouard  and  Levy.  Estrunat,  formed  on 
the  adjective  estrun,  would  not  be  a  likely  formation,  though  not 
impossible. 

2  Esvarrar,  though  given  in  Stichel  (p.  57),  probably  doesn't  exist, 
and  esvarrat  itself  seems  to  be  the  same  as  esyarat  (Fr.  egare).  Es- 
garar  in  Prov.,  however,  means  to  look  at. 

3  Words  like  figurat,  forcat,  molherat,  senat,  etc.,  might,  like  coronatus 
be  formed  either  on  nouns  or  verbs. 

*  Maestrar  is  not  found. 

5  Must  come  from  some  other  meaning  of  the  verb. 


302 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


which  might,  nevertheless,  be  used  as  an  adjective,  have 
very  generally  been  omitted. 

Words  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  the  preceding  list, 
but  ending  in  -IT,  from  being  formed  on  verbs  in  -ir, 
follow : 


ademplit,  sated 

adolit,^  afflicted 

afortit,  obstinate 

agrazit?  pleasing,  agreeable 


cauzit,  kind,  friendly 
desgelozit,  free  from  jealousy 
desgrazit,^  unrewarded 

dezapedit,  abandoned 
embait,  troubled 
encobit,  covetous 
encoratgit,  courageous 
enfrevolit,  weak 
engelozit,  jealous 
engolit,  greedy 
engrenit,  angry 
enrabgit,  raging 
ensenhit,  distinguished 
entendrit,  soft,  fresh-baked 
envermezit,  full  of  worms 
esbalauzit,  stunned 
esbarrit,  confused 
escabit,      escafit,      slender, 
formed^ 


ademplu,  fill 

adoler  (se),  be  afflicted 

afortir,  fortify 

agrazir  is  apparently  not  to  be 

found  meaning  "to  please." 

Levy    suggests   correction    of 

agrazit  to  grazit. 
cauzir,  distinguish,  choose 
desgelozir,  to  free  from  jealousy 
desgrazir,     curse,     grumble,     be 

ungrateful 

embair  (se),  be  full  of  care 
encobir,  covet 

enfrevolir,  become  weak 
engelozir,  become  jealous 
engolir,  swallow 


esbalauzir,  stun 


well 


1  Here  -IT  is  added  to  a  verb  in  -er.     -UT  is  comparatively  rare. 

2  In  spite  of  the  existence  of  desgrazir,  this  word,  from  its  naeaniug, 
would  appear  to  be  a  parasynthetic  formation  on  grazir. 

'  Escabir  or  escafir  is  not  found,  but  eschevir,  execute,  perform,  is 
found  in  O.  Fr.,  and  escafit  means  (well)  formed,  or  carried  out.  See 
Diez,  573.  Another  word  of  this  kind  is  estordit,  confused.  Estordir 
is  not  found,  but  compare  estordre  in  O.  Fr.,  and  estordir  in  O.  Sp. 
Compare  likewise  stordire  in  It.,  etourdir  in  Mod.  Fr.,  and  aturdir  in 
Mod.  Sp. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  303 

escarit,  separated,  alone  escarir,  have  divided 

escursit,  robbed  of  sense  escursir,  darken 

espandit,  disheveled  (of  hair)  espandir,  strew  about 

estordit,^  confused 

faidit,  wretched,  unhappy  faidir,  banish 

falhil,  short  of  goal  falhir,  fail 

forbit,  t  smooth,  polished  forbir.  equip 

-UT  is  found  with  adjectival  force  in  the  following  past 

participles  of  verbs  in  -er  and  -re: 

decazut,  weak  decazer,  fall 

entendut,  attentive,  eager  entendre,  attend 

escomogut,  anxious,  uneasy  escomover,  agitate 

esmogut,  excited  esmover,  move 

esperdut,  silly,  crazy  esperdre,  distract 

2.  Here  might  be  mentioned  another  kind  of  formation 
of  which  a  complete  list  of  examples  will  be  given  under 
parasyntheta.^  In  this  kind  of  formation,  the  prefix  is 
joined  as  well  as  the  suffix — the  type  of  word  which  decazut, 
for  example,  would  be,  if  only  cazer,  and  not  decazer 
existed.  These  adjectival  parasyntheta  formed  on  verbs 
probably  made  the  next  step  in  the  use  of  the  suffix  -AT. 
It  should  be  observed  that  nouns  of  corresponding  form 
exist  beside  most  of  the  simple  verbs. 

■  See  note  3,  p.  302.  2  See  p.  529,  below. 


t  In  the  cases  of  dezapedit,  engrenit,  entendrit,  envermezit,  and  esharrit, 
no  verbs  are  found  of  which  these  adjectives  in  -IT  could  be  the  past 
participles,  but  the  verb  can  generally  be  assumed.  Compare,  however, 
for  dezapedit,  entendrit  and  esharrit,  the  Sp.  despedir,  the  Catalan  en- 
tendrir,  and  the  Bearnese  esbarri.  Dezapedir  is,  however,  peculiar  in 
having  a  possible  double  prefix.  Engrenit  seems  to  show  a  change  of  pre- 
fix, from  A-  of  agrenir  to  the  common  -EN.  See  Stichel,  pp.  11  and  44. 
Envermezit  seems  to  indicate  a  verb  envermezir,  built  on  verm,  worm. 

-IT  is  found  in  encoratgit,  enrabgit,  and  ensenhit  instead  of  -AT. 
In  all  of  these  cases,  however,  the  form  in  -AT  exists  also.  Why  this 
second  form  in  -IT  should  exist  too,  is  not  quite  clear,  but  it  shows 
that  the  suffixes  had  lost  their  participial  force,  hence  their  close  connec- 
tion with  their  respective  verbs  and  conjugations.  Enrabgit  is  a  rather 
puzzling  form,  but  the  rhyme-words  in  the  examples  given  show  the 
irregular  accentuation  of  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived. 


304  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

3.  Next  come  the  formations  on  nouns  by  the  addition 

of  -AT,  -IT,  and  -UT.     Under  -AT  are  found: 

anat,  old  an,  year 

anctat,  dishonored  ancta,  shame 

armaudat,  enameled  armaut,  enamel 

aural,  foolish  aura,  air 

bracat,  breeches-wearing  braca,  breeches 

ca  udat,  flat ;  in  pairs  (used  of  rhymes)  cauda,  tail 

cisclntonat,  made  of  "cisclaton"  cisclaion,  a  kind  of  silk 

colrat,  angry  col{e)ra,  anger 

coratjat,  resolute  coratjc,  courage 

cordoanat,  of  (Cordovan)  leather  cordoan,  Cordovan 

crozat,  latticed  (of  windows)  crotz,  cross 

dechat,  possessed  of  bad  qualities  decha,  fault 

desmoniat,  bedeviled  desmoni,  devil 

escacat,  torn,  cut  escac,  spot 

estanat,  tinned  esianh,  tin 

fazendat,    afflicted,    instead    of  fazenda,  affair,  need 

"made,"  "formed,"  the  past 

participle  of  an  assumed  verb 

fazendar 

fiocat,  tasseled  floc,^  tassel 
^afteZa^,  examined  by  customs-officer  gnbela,  Si  ta.\ 

gemat,  studded  with  gems  gema,  gem 

granat,  full  of  grain  gran,  grain 

lanat,  woolly  lana,  wool 

letrat,    ornamented    with   letters,  letra,  letter 

written;  learned 

paonatjt  feathered  like  a  peacock  paon,  peacock 

-IT  is  found  added  to  nouns  in  the  following  words: 

aceril,  like  steel  acier,  steel 

aibit,  perfect  aip,  good  quality 

maestrit,  artificial  maestre,  master 

fraidit,  rascally  (Germanic /raitZi,  rascal?) 

poestadit,  powerful  poestat,  power 

vollit,  vaulted  volta,  vault 

For  -UT  added  to  nouns,  see  p.  330,  below. 

1  Flocar  exists,  but  with  a  different  meaning. 

t  Also  the  following  words  of  Lat.  origin  are  found:  colegiat,  col- 
legiate, dental,  toothed,  and  estelat,  starry.  For  words  like  aurpelal, 
formed  on  aurpel,  see  hybrid  formations,  p.  581. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  305 

4,  Finally  come  the  cases  in  which  the  suffix  is  added 
to  nouns,  with  a  prefix  joined  at  the  same  time,  true 
parasyntheta,  which  will  therefore  be  treated  under  that 
head.^ 

-EL 

The  suffix  -EL  has  been  treated  too  fully  under  nouns 

to  require  any  detailed  treatment  here,  especially  as  there 

are    very   few   words    containing   it.     Those   found   are 

words  which  have  added  the  suffix  to  adjectives,  and,  as  is 

invariably  the  case  in  such  formations,  the  derived  word 

shows  no  change  of  meaning.  Novus,  novellus,  is  an  example 

of  this  same  thing  in  Latin.    The  Provengal  formations  are : 

crespel,  curled  cresp,  curled 

falbel,  pale  falb,  pale 

maurel,  dark-brown,  black  maur,  black 

mejanel,  middle,  half  mejan,  middle,  half 

mesquinel,  poor  mesquin,  poor 

-AREL  is  found  in  several  words  and  will  be  treated 
under  this  form  among  the  double  suffixes.^ 

-EN 

The  Provengal  suffix  -EN,  not  a  present  participle 
of  verbs,'  is  derived  from  a  Latin  -ENLTS,  and  its  most 
important  use  is  in  forming  the  ordinal  numerals  on  the 
cardinals,  just  as,  in  the  case  of  nouns,  it  formed  nouns 
of  number: 


dezen,  10th 

detz,  10 

milen,  1,000th 

viil,  1,000 

noven,  9th 

nou,  9 

ochen,  8th 

och,  oit,  8 

seten,  7th 

set,  7 

1  P.  530  below. 

2  See  p.  402,  below. 

3  Such  adjectives  as  manen,  rich,  poden,  powerful,  and  ponhen,  sharp, 
are  merely  present  participles  of  verbs  in  -er,  just  as  dezacordan,  etc. 
(p.  295,  note  ft),  are  present  participles  of  verbs  in  -ar. 


306  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

and  probably  many  otlier  forms.  Otherwise  -ENUS  was 
hardly  in  use  as  an  adjective.  Terren  is  found  coming 
however  from  the  Latin  terrenus.     The  other  words  are: 

nioren,  dark  mor,  Moor  (cf.  Spanish  moreno) 

vermeil,  wormy  verm,  worm 

-ENC 

The  source  of  the  suffix  -ENC  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed under  nouns/  in  which  place  it  was  stated  that  most 
of  the  words  ending  in  the  suffix  were  adjectives,  and 
many  of  the  nouns  themselves  only  adjectives  used  sub- 
stantively. There  is,  indeed,  a  fairly  large  list  of  adjec- 
tives in  -ENC,  to  be  given  below.  In  most  cases,  the 
sufRx  is  added  to  nouns  to  form  adjectives  denoting 
material.  It  also  denotes  belonging  and  resemblance. 
Still  another  meaning  that  the  suffix  has — that  of  nation- 
ality or  place  of  origin — is  clearly  to  be  derived  from  the 
Germanic  suffix  -ING,  as  opposed  to  the  pre-Germanic 
-INC0.2 

aerenc,  of  the  air,  aerial  aer,  air 

albenc,  white  alba,  dawn 

caorsenc,  of  Cahors  Caors,  Cahors 

causerenc,^  of  or  for  Hme  caus,  lime 
cazarenc,^  pertaining  to  (dried  in) 
a  cheese-basket? 

»  P.  178. 

•  For  a  discussion  of  the  two  suffixes,  see  pp.  178-79. 

'  Double  suffixes  ?  The  formation  of  these  words  is  peculiar.  For 
causerenc  the  simple  word  caus  appears  to  be  the  base-word,  and  there  is, 
therefore,  a  double  suffix  -ERENC,  instead  of  simply  -ENC.  Probably 
*causier  or  *causer,  meaning  a  lime-kiln,  existed  (cf.  chauchiere  in  Gode- 
froy),  and  to  it  was  added  -ENC,  making  an  adjective.  In  the  same  kind 
of  way,  cazarenc  was  probably  formed  on  an  O.  Prov.  form  of  chaseiro, 
a  word  which  Mistral  gives,  meaning  a  cheese-basket.  No  such  O.  Prov. 
word  is  found,  however,  so  its  form  is  unknown.  The  ar  syllable  is 
interesting.     Cf.  fumaral,  etc.,  p.  398,  n.  1. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


307 


cornenc,  of  horn 

diablenc,  devilish 

doblenc,  doubled 

estivenc,  of  summer 

ferrienc,^  ferrenc,  of  iron 

foguenc,  foguienc,  fiery 

joanenc,    (grass)   to   be  cut  in 
June 

lachenc,  milk-giving;  milky,  milk- 
white 

viagenc,  of  May 

meitadenc,    divided  into   equal 
halves 

moladenc,   stained  with    grind- 
stone-dust 

montanhenc,  mountainous 

nevenc,  snowy,  of  snow 

novenc,^  ninth  (for  noven  ?) 

ortenc,  of  a  garden 

pinenc,  of  pine 

plumbenc,^  leaden 

ramenc,  wandering  (moving  from 
branch  to  branch) 

rozenc,  rose,  pink 

rozenc,  dewy,  wet  with  dew 

sulfur enc,^  sulphurous 

unenc,^  joined,  united 

uvenc,  grape-colored 

verginenc,^  virginal 

veirienc,^  of  glass 

vinenc,  winy,  wine-colored 


corn,  horn 
diable,  devil 
doble,  double 
estiu,  summer 
fcr,  iron 
foe,  fire 
Joan,  June 

lack,  milk 

Mag,  May 
meitat,  half 

niolada,  grindstone-dust 

montanh,  mountain 
neu,  snow 
nou,  nine 
ort,  garden 
pin,  pine 
plom{b),  lead 
rcmi,  branch 

roza,  rose    j 
ros,  dew 
solfre,  sulphur 
un,  one 
uva,  grape 
verge{n),  virgin 
veire,  glass 
vin,  wine 


In  a  few  cases,  adjectives  of  nationality  appear 
to  be  formed  on  other  adjectives  with  no  change  of 
meaning : 


>  Forms  like  ferrienc,  sulfurenc,  pliwibenc,  verginenc,  and  veirienc 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  Lat.  formation. 

2  Novenc  and  unenc  are  formed  on  (numeral)  adjectives.  Novenc,  at 
any  rate,  appears  to  be  due  to  a  confusion  of  -ENC  with  -EN,  the  suffix 
regularly  forming  ordinal  numerals. 


308  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 

arabienc,  Arabian  arabi,  Arabian 

germanenc,  Germanic  german    (though   not   found    in 

Provencal  with  the  meaning 
of  German) 
Loarenc,  of  Lorraine  (a  word  of 
Germanic  origin) 

In  these  words  -ENC  appears  to  be  derived  from  the 
Germanic  -ING. 

There  is  also  another  small  list  of  words  formed  on 
adjectives,  namely  those  describing  color.  Here  the 
function  of  the  suffix  seems  to  be  that  of  modifying  very 
slightly  the  meaning  of  the  original  adjective — about  the 
meaning  which  -dtre  gives  in  French.  Even  this,  however, 
is  more  of  a  change  than  is  usual  in  a  suffix  added  to  an 
adjective  to  form  an  adjective.  The  suffix  in  the  list 
just  given,  however,  is  already  added  to  a  number  of 
nouns  denoting  things  of  decided  color,  as  in  lachenc, 
foguenc,  nevenc,  and  uvenc;  and  thus  -ENC,  giving  the 
meaning  of  likeness  to  the  nouns  to  which  it  is  added,  has 
already  in  this  list  the  idea  of  color.  Then  added  to 
adjectives  already  denoting  color,  and  keeping  its  idea  of 
similarity,  it  necessarily  has  the  meaning  of  the  French 
-dtre.  Just  why  the  suffix  when  used  with  adjectives 
should  be  limited  to  those  denoting  color  is  not  thoroughly 
clear,  however.     The  list  follows: 

nlbnginenc,  whitish  albugine,  white^ 

blavenc,  bluish  blau,  blue 

falbenc,"^  slightly  pale  falb,  pale 

negrenc,  black  negre,  black 

purpurenc,  purple  purpra,  purple 

rogenc,  reddish  rog,  red 

'  Albugo,  -inis,  is  a  noun  in  Lat.  This  seems  to  be  the  only  trace  of 
the  Lat.  suffix  -UGINE  in  Prov.,  though  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  517,  derives 
some  words  in  -UZI  from  this  suffix. 

'  For  the  form  with  a  prefix — subfalbenc — see  also  the  parasyntheta. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  309 

sanguinenc,^  blood-colored  sanguin,  bloody,  sanguine 

subalbenc,^  whitening  slightly  alb,  white 

subfalbenc,^  slightly  pale  subfalb,  slightly  pale 

-ES 

As  stated  under  the  nouns,  the  Provencal  -ES  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  -ENSIS,  used  in  forming  adjectives,  par- 
ticularly those  of  nationality,  on  nouns,  the  cases  given 
under  nouns  being,  for  the  most  part,  only  adjectives 
used  substantively.  The  list  of  words  found  in  Provengal 
as  adjectives  of  nationality  follows: 

arables,  Arabian  arabi,  Arabian 

campanes,  of  Champagne  Campana,  Champagne 

cortves,  Cordovan  Cordova,  Cordova 

espanes,  Spanish  Espana,  Spain 

frances,  French  Fransa,  France 

pabies,  of  Pa  via  Pahia{1),  Pa  via 

With  a  wider  meaning,  several  other  words  are  found, 
in  which  the  suffix  appears  to  have  the  force  of  ''pertain- 
ing to,"  a  meaning  seen  in  the  more  specialized  develop- 
ments in  which  the  suffix  was  attached  to  the  name  of  a 
country.     Such  words  are: 

canones,  of  reeds  canon,  reed 

leones,^  lion-like  leon,  lion 

1  This  word,  however,  is  probably  the  Lat.  sanguilentus  disguised 
by  an  assimilation  of  I  to  n  and  by  a  substitution  of  -ENC  for  -ENT, 
which  suffixes  were  often  confused. 

Here  should  be  mentioned  also  this  apparent  suffix  -ENT,  which 
cannot  be  treated  as  a  real  suffix.  It  is  found  in  manent,  etc.,  which 
forms  represent,  however,  only  a  dialect  difference  from  the  forms  in 
-EN,  which  are  nothing  but  the  present  participles  of  verbs  in  -er,  used 
as  adjectives.  -ENT  is  found  also  in  peirient  and  corporent.  Peirient 
(in  Raynouard  peyrient)  should  probably  be  corrected  to  peirienc  which 
would  be  a  regular  formation  (cf .  veirienc) .  Corporent,  ol  course,  represents 
corpulenlus.  Famolen  given  also  under  -AN  (p.  295,  n.  tt)  represents 
*famulentus  (see  the  suffix  -OLEN,  pp.  323  f). 

2  See  also  adjectival  parasyntheta  (p.  529,  n.  l),and  prefix-formations. 


t  Two  other  words  in  which  -ES  is  joined  to  nouns  are  cortes  and 
mares.     Cortes,   courteous,  being  represented  in  ninnj-  of  the  Romance 


310  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

In  still  other  words  -ES  is  seen  to  be  added  to  adjec- 
tives. Here  there  is,  as  usual,  no  change  of  meaning  to 
be  found  in  the  derived  word : 

enteres,  perfect,  entire  entier,  perfect,  entire 

felones,  bad,  vindictive  felon,  treacherous,  vindictive 

glotones,  gluttonous  gloton,  gluttonous 

■majores,  principal  major,  principal 

manjadores,  edible  manjador,  edible 

mores,  black  mor  (mmir),  black 

mortales,  mortal  mortal,  mortal 

proensales,^  Provengal  proensal,  Provencal 

-ESC 

The  Provencal  suffix  -ESC,  as  stated  under  the  nouns, 
is  derived  both  from  the  Greek  iaxo<i  and  the  Germanic 
patronymic  suffix  -ISK.  co-xo'i,  originally  diminutive, 
came  to  form  ordinary  adjectives,  generally  meaning 
"pertaining  to."     It  is  probably  seen  in: 

folesc,  foolish  fol,  fool 

</azan/iesc,  pertaining  to  the  plough;  gazanhar,  plough 

ploughable 
joglaresc,  low-bred  joglar,  mountebank 

though  possibly  these  words  represent  a  confusion  of  the 
two  suffixes.^ 

The  influence  of  the  Germanic  suffix  is  seen  more 
clearly  in  the  following  adjectives  of  nationality: 

espanesc,  Spanish  Espana,  Spain 

francesc,  French  Fransa,  France 

»  See  also  proensalesc  under  -ESC.  Proensales  is  the  only  adjective 
of  nationality  in  -ES  formed  on  an'adjective. 

2  One  more  word  of  this  kind  is  nianesc,  whose  meaning  is  not  clear. 
It  seems  to  represent  a  confusion  with  the  adverb  manes. 


languages  (Fr.  courtois,  Sp.  coWes.^It.  cortese),  was  probably  formed  in 
Lat.  times.  The  -ES  of  mares  is  probably  a  substitution  for  -ESC,  as 
the  source  of  the  word  is  the  Germ,  marisk.     Cf.  the  Fr.  marais. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  311 

grezesc,  Greek  Grecia,^  Greece 

proensalesc,  Proven9al  proensal,  Provencal 

sarrazinesc,  Saracen  sarrazin,  Saracen 

the  last  two  formations  being  made  on  adjectives,  con- 
sequently giving  no  change  in.  meaning.  Espanesc 
and  francesc  are  found  also  with  -ES<-ENSIS,  which 
probably  had  also  an  influence  in  giving  -ESC  <  -ISK  its 
meaning,  through  similarity  in  form. 

-ET 

The  suffix  -ET  (<-ITTUS)  has  been  fully  discussed 
under  nouns,  where  it  was  attached  to  simple  nouns  to 
form  diminutives.  In  the  case  of  the  nouns,  it  was  pointed 
out  that  -ET,  unlike  many  other  diminutive  suffixes,  con- 
tinued in  Provengal  its  functions  as  a  true  diminutive, 
instead  of  being  added  merely  to  give  a  greater  length 
to  the  word.  Added  to  adjectives  to  form  new  adjectives, 
-ET  still  retained  its  diminutive  force,  and  seems  to  be  the 
only  example  of  a  suffix  retaining  its  force  under  such 
conditions.  Yet  this  formation  of  diminutive  adjectives 
on  adjectives  was  the  regular  function  of  -ET,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  list  below. ^ 

-ET  is  added  to  adjectives  (and  adverbs)  with  diminu- 
tive force  in: 

agudet,  somewhat  sharp  agut,  sharp 

aigret,  somewhat  acid  aigre,  acid,  tart 

1  Is  there  also  a  form  Greza  f  See  Zeitschrift,  XXIV,  545,  and  XXV, 
736.  Horning  here  shows  that  in  many  words,  as  geographical  names,  ty 
and  cy  became  0  in  a  large  section  of  Romance  territory. 

2  Compare  this  use  with  that  of  other  adjectival  suffixes  added  to 
adjectives,  which,  when  their  meanings  were  not  changed  by  the  suffix, 
disappeared  in  the  modern  languages.  Compare  with  the  Prov.  fresc 
and  frescal  the  Sp.  fresco  and  frescal,  which  two  last  words  differ  in  mean- 
ing. Even  -ET,  the  most  important  diminutive  suffix,  when  added  to 
adjectives,  often  had  very  little  force,  which  would  give  a  possible  start- 
ing-point for  this  use  in  other  adjective  suffixes. 


312 


Word-Formation  in  Pro  venial 


alquantet,^  a  little 
amorozel,^  somewhat  loving 
baset,  somewhat  low 
blanquet,  somewhat  white 
calvet,  somewhat  bald 
caudet,  somewhat  hot 
claret,  somewhat  clear 
coindet,  somewhat  gracious 
cortet,  somewhat  short 
cortezet,'^  somewhat  courtly 
fadet,  somewhat  silly 
falbelet,^  somewhat  pale 
fortalet,"^  somewhat  strong 
fortet,  somewhat  strong 
freget,  somewhat  cold 
fresqiienet,^  fresh 
fresquet,  somewhat  fresh 
frevolet,  somewhat  weak 
gentet,  somewhat  gentle 
ginhozet,^  fine,  slender;  clever 
grailet,  somewhat  slender 
graset,  somewhat  fat 
grevet,  somewhat  hard 
grizet,  somewhat  gray 
grizonet,^  somewhat  gray 
groset,  somewhat  large 
Jovenet,  somewhat  young 
larguet,  somewhat  large,  broad 
level,  somewhat  light 
longuet,  somewhat  long 
lonhet,  somewhat  distant 
majoret,  somewhat  greater 
vienvdet,  somewhat  small 
mesquinet,  somewhat  shabby 
mold,  somewhat  soft 
morelet,  somewhat  black 
novelet,^  somewhat  new 
nudet,  somewhat  bare 


(dquanl,  somewhat 

amoros,  loving 

bus,  low 

blanc,  white 

calv,  bald 

caul,  hot 

clar,  clear 

cointe,  gracious 

cort,  short 

cortes,  courtly 

fat,  silly 

falbel  {<falb),  pale 

ifortal  f),  fori,  strong 

fort,  strong 

freg,  cold 

fresc,  fresh 

fresc,  fresh 

frevol,  weak 

gent,  gentle 

ginhos,  skilful 

graile,  slender 

gras,  fat 

greu,  hard 

gris,  gray 

grizon  ( <gris),  gray 

gros,  large,  stout 

jove{n),  young 

larc,  large 

leu,  hght 

lone,  long 

lonh,  distant 

major,  greater 

menut,  small 

mesquin,  mean 

)nol,  soft 

morel,  dark(  ?) 

7iovel  {<nou),  new 

nut,  bare,  naked 


'  Really  an  adverb  formed   on   an   adverb.    Cf.  also  tantet,  in  the 
same  list. 

=  See  double  suffixes,  p.  387. 
a  See  double  suffixes,  p.  388. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  313 

jietitet,^  somewhat  small  petit,  small 

planet,  somewhat  plain,  smooth  plan,  plain 

primet,  somewhat  fine  prim,  fine 

raiiquet,  somewhat  hoarse  rauc,  hoarse 

redondet,  somewhat  round  redon{da),  round 

solet,  somewhat  solitary,  alone  sol,  only,  sohtary 

sovendet,^  somewhat  often  soven{t),  often 

subtilet,  somewhat  subtle  subtil,  subtle 

tantet,^  just  so  much,  a  little  tant,  so  much 

tendret,  somewhat  tender  tendre,  tender 

trefanet,  somewhat  deceitful  trefan,  deceitful 

verdet,  somewhat  green,  greenish  vert,  green 

vermelhet,  f  somewhat  vermilion  vermelh,  vermilion 

-lER 

The  origin  of  the  suffix  found  in  Provengal  as  -lER  has 
been  so  fully  treated  under  nouns  that  its  development 
from  -ARIUS  will  not  be  treated  again  here,  but,  instead, 
its  use  as  an  adjectival  suffix  in  Provencal  will  be  noted. 
-ARIUS  in  Latin,  of  course,  formed  adjectives  originally,^ 
although  the  use  of  these  as  nouns  denoting  persons, 
which  later  became  so  common,  is  found  there  also. 
But  in  Provengal,  as  in  the  other  Romance  languages 
also,  the  adjectives  in  -lER,  although  formed  on  nouns, 
adjectives,  and  verbs,  have  become  rare,  so  great  was  the 
tendency  toward  their  use  as  substantives,  all  three  forms 
of  the  adjective  being  used  thus.  The  adjectives  formed 
on    nouns    have    the    usual    adjectival    force,    meaning 

^  Petitet  seems  to  show  the  reduplication  of  a  suffix.     See  K5rting, 
No.  7,106. 

'  An  adjective  formed  on  an  adverb.     Cf.  alquantet  above. 
3  See  Cooper,  148. 


t  Another  word  possibly  belonging  here  is  rnoflet,  found  only  in  the 
phrase,  pan  rnoflet,  indicating  a  kind  of  bread,  the  Fr.  pain  mollet.  We 
should  expect  pan  motet  in  Prov.,  but  the  word  has  probably  been 
influenced  by  some  other  word,  possibly  *mofla  (Fr.  moufle)  from  the 
Lat.  muffuta,  mitten. 


314  WORD-FOHMATION    IN    PROVENCAL 

generally  ■"pertaining  to"  the  nouns  to  which  the  suffix 
is  added,  evidently  the  force  the  suffix  had  in  Latin.  In 
the  case  of  the  suffix  joined  to  adjectives  to  form  adjectives, 
Goelzer  and  Cooper^  both  see  a  use  of  the  suffix  solely 
for  greater  length,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  case  in 
Provengal.  Olcott-  sees  in  many  words  not  "a  mere 
fondness  for  longer  words."  According  to  him  these 
words  fill  "a  real  want  in  the  language."  These  words,  to 
be  sure,  were  used  in  speaking  of  the  adjectives  formed 
on  nouns  to  denote  trades,  where  they  are  certainly  true; 
but  he  inniiediately  adds:  "this  commercial  use  of 
-ARIUS  being  established,  the  formations  are  extended 
to  adjectives  derived  from  adjectives."  Several  examples 
of  this  usage  are  given  in  adjectives  of  trade  and  of  nation- 
ality: candidarius,  maurarius,  privatarius,  etc.,  in  which 
cases  Olcott  is  undoubtedly  right  in  pointing  out  a  dis- 
tinction of  meaning  from  the  simple  adjectives  candidus, 
privatus,  and  maurus.  But  these  words  did  not  remain 
adjectives  in  Provengal:  the  noun  with  whicli  they  w^ere 
used  disappeared  and  they  became  regular  nouns.  The 
Provengal  words  caninier,  dog-fancier,  blanquier,  tanner, 
etc.,  instead  of  meaning  "dog-fancying,"  "of  white," 
tend  to  show  this,  as  well  as  the  relatively  small  total  num- 
ber of  adjectives  in  -lER.  And  yet  there  was  certainly 
also  in  Latin  the  t\'pe  which  Goelzer  and  Cooper  noticed — 
the  adjective  formed  on  an  adjective  without  change  of 
meaning.  Adversarius  beside  adversus  seems  to  prove 
this.  The  adjectives  formed  on  adjectives  in  Proven9al 
are  of  this  class,  those  on  nouns  and  other  parts  of  speech 
being  adjectives  meaning  "referring,"  or  "pertaining"  to 
this  simple  word — generally  a  noun — and  sometimes 
meaning  "fond  of"  when  applied  to  a  person. 

•Goelzer,  147;   Cooper,  151.  =  P.  138. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


315 


Adjectives  of  this  kind  formed  on  nouns  are: 


aglanier,  gland-bearing 

agradier,  pleasing 

autorier,    consenting;     with    the 

authority  of 
baralhier,  pugnacious 
batalhier,^  bold,  warlike;    of  war, 

fortified 
bevendier,  bibulous 
bladier,  pertaining  to  crops 
bobansier,  pompous 
capdalier,   most   distinguished, 

leading 
caronhier,    bloodthirsty,    carnivo- 
rous 
confrairier,  pertaining  to  a 

brotherhood 
corsier,  able  to  go  ? 
costier,  passing  at  the  side 
drechurier,  upright 
drudier,  unchaste,  amorous 
estatgier,  remaining  standing 
ferrier,  iron-color,  gray 
fromentier,  of  wheat 
frontier,  shameless 
furtier,  thievish 

galinier,  hen-hunting  (used  of  birds) 
glazier,  cruel,  bloodthirsty 
grader,  ready  to  ask  favors 
granier,  grain-bearing 
lachier,  milk-giving 
lagotier,  lying,  false 
lardier    (in    phrase    dimars    I.  = 

Shrove  Tuesday) 
lucrier,^  rich 
manier,  of  the  hand ;  tamed  (used 

to  the  hand) 


aglan,  gland 
agrat,  satisfaction 
autor,  author 

baralha,  fight 
batalh,  battle 

bevenda,  drinjc 
hlat,  wheat 
bobansa,  pomp 
capdal,  leader 

caronha,  carrion 

confraire,  brotherhood 

corsa,  course,  way 

cosia,  side 

drechura,  uprightness 

drut,  lover 

estatge,  stay,  position 

fer,  iron 

fromen{t),  wheat 

fron{t),  front 

furt,  theft 

galina,  hen 

glazi,  sword 

gracia,  favor 

grati,  grain 

lack,  milk 

lagot,  flattery,  deception 

lart,  bacon,  fat 

logre,  lucre 
)nan,  hand 


■  This  word  shows  the  two  kinds  of  meaning:  (1)  fond  of,  as  in 
baralhier,  above  it,  and  (2)  pertaining  to. 

*  Lucrier,  of  course,  cannot  be  a  popular  formation  on  logre.  It  seems 
to  be  formed  by  a  late  adding  of  the  popular  suffix  -IER<-ARIUS  to 
the  Lat.  lucrum. 


316 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


malin ier,  early-rising 

viealhkr,  worth  a  "mcalha" 

megier,  in  the  middle 

megloguier,  belonging  to  the 
middle  class 

meiladier,  in  the  middle;  divided 
in  halves;  sharing  equally 

mejansier,  of  middle  size  or  qual- 
ity; middle-class 

viercadier,  marketable 

merdier,  dirty 

montanhier,  of  the  mountains; 
appearing  over  the  mountains 
(used  of  the  sun,  etc.) 

montier,  for  himting  (cf.  Spanish 
tno7it€ro) 

nizier,  still  in  the  nest 

orfanier,  orphaned 

ostalier,  hospitable 

pasatgier,  passing 

plaster,^  out  of  work 

rabinier,  impetuous 

ratier,  rat-catching 

sobransier,  arrogant 

solasier,  joyous 

talentier,  desirous 

torturier,  crooked 

trebalhier,  annoying 

ufanier,  arrogant,  proud 

vertadier,  f  true 


matin,  morning 
mealha,  a  coin 
meg,  middle 
megloc,  middle 

nieilal,  half 

niejansia,  interval 

mercat,  market 
merda,  dung 
montanha,  mountain 


mon{t),  mountain 

ni{s),  nest 
orfan,  orphan 
oslal,  lodging 
pasalge,  passage 
plasa,  place,  position 
rabina,  ardor 
rata,  rat 

sobransa,  superiority 
solatz,  enjoyment 
talen{l),  desire 
tortura,  twisting 
irebalh,  trouble 
ufana,  pride 
vertat,  truth 


Thus,  in  this  comparatively  short  list  there  are  various 
meanings   with   which   the  suffix   appears.     Besides  the 


'  I.e.,  place-hunting,  ti  kind  of  meaning  seen  in  galinier  and  ratier. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  there  is  mercenier Kmercenarius,  mercenary.  An 
obscure  word  is  lanier,  which  Levy  takes  to  mean  "common,"  "ordinary." 
Diez,  188,  and  Appel,  selection  98,  1.  37,  both  translate  it,  however,  as 
"greedy."  The  context  could  bear  either  interpretation.  Diez  and 
Appel  evidently  connect  the  word  with  the  O.  Fr.  and  Prov.  lanier,  a 
bird  of  prey,  from  Haniarius  (Korting,  5,426)  and  with  laniare,  seen  in 
the  O.  Fr.  laignier  and  the  Prov.  lanhar  se,  complain.  It  is  difficult  to 
see  with  what  Levy  connects  his  meaning  of  the  word. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  317 

meanings  of  ''pertaining  to"  and  ''fond  of"  or  "addicted 
to,"  it  often  means  "bearing"  or  "producing"  the  noun 
to  which  it  is  joined.  Thus  aglanier,  lachier,  etc.,  whereas 
the  nouns  denoting  trees,  as  figuier,  perier,  etc.,^  seem 
to  be  only  a  substantive  use  of  this  kind  of  adjective. 
The  suffix  is  seen  also  to  be  attached  to  abstract  nouns 
to  denote  qualities  or  characteristics,  and  in  one  adjec- 
tive, ferrier,  it  gives  the  idea  of  color. 

Joined  to  adjectives,  as  stated,  little  change  in  meaning 
can  be  observed  in  the  derived  word: 

comunalier,  common  comunal,  common 

domesguier,  domestic  domesgue,  domestic 

egalier,  equal  egal,  equal 

esiranhier,  strange  estranh,  strange 

esquerrier,  left-handed  esquer,  left 

grizier,  gray  gris,  gray 

malignier,  bad,  wicked  maligne,  bad,  wicked 

menudier,  small  menut,  small 

mortalier,  mortal,  deadly  mortal,  mortal,  deadly 

parier,  equal  par,  equal 

tardier,  slow,  late  tart,  late 

tersier,  third  ters,  third 

traversier,  oblique,  transverse  travers,  transverse 

vivacier,  vivacious  vivatz,  vivacious 

volatgier,-\  fickle  volaige,  fickle 

There  are  also  several  words  formed  on  verb-stems, 
and  among  the  total  list  of  possible  formations  of  this  kind, 
some  words,  such  as  esleneguier,  could  have  had  no  other 
base-word  than  a  verb,  and  many  others,  given,  for  the 
most  part  under  nouns,  might  have  had  a  verb  at  their 
base,    as,    for    example,    haralhier,    hatalhier,^   etc.     The 

1  See  above,  nouns,  p.  225. 

2  P.  315,  above. 


t  Words  of  this  kind  formed  in  Lat.  are  aversier  (see  p.  218)  and 
leugier,  light,  evidently  coming  from  leviarius  and  not  formed  on  leu  < 
levis.     Cf.  the  Fr.  leger  and  the  It.  leggiero. 


318  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

verb-formations  probabl}^  came  about  through  some  such 
confusion  as  to  the  base-word  as  may  be  seen  in  these 
examples.  And  their  development  was  facilitated  in 
cases  where  a  common  verb  and  a  less  usual  noun  existed 
side  by  side.     The  verb-formations  follow: 

afrontier,  insolent  afrontar,  face,  insult 

avansier,  pushing  forward  avansar,  advance 

esleneguier,  slippery,  smooth  eslenegar,  slip 

gabier,  bragging,  boasting  gabar,  boast 

lechadier,^  dainty  lechar,  lick 

logadier,^  to  rent  or  hire  logar,  lodge 

marvier,  alert  marvir{?),  (not  clear) 
prezeniier,       pressing       forward;     prezentar,  present 
hasty 

On  other  parts  of  speech  the  following  words  are 
formed : 

avantier,  bold,  courageous  avant,  before,  forward 

sobrier,  excessive  sobre,^  over 

sovendier,  assiduous  soven{t),  often 

-IN 

The  Provengal  suffix  -IN  from  a  Latin  -INUS  is  fairly 
clear  as  to  its  meanings,  generally  indicating  resemblance, 
and  being  added  to  names  of  animals.  Thus  elephantin  = 
elephantine  or  elephant-like.  This  use  is,  of  course, 
found  in  Latin  in  such  words  as  equinus,  caninus,  etc. 
Joined  to  the  names  of  several  metals  and  other  objects, 
it  serves  to  point  out  the  material  of  which  a  thing  is 
made,  as  in  peirin,  from  the  Latin  petrinus.  Another 
use  found  in  Latin  and  in  some  of  the  other  Romance 
languages — that  of  indicating  the  native  of  the  place  to 
the  name  of  which  the  suffix  is  added — does  not  appear 

>  Here  we  have  the  double  suffix  -ADIER,  already  treated  under 
nouns  (see  p.  219).     See  also  double  suffixes,  p.  393. 
'  Or  is  sobrier  possibly  formed  on  the  verb  sohrar  f 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


319 


to  exist  in  Provengal.     Joined  to  adjectives,  the  s 
changes  the  meaning  of  the  word  as  little  as  usual. 
-IN  is  added  to  nouns  in  the  following  list  of  words 

aceirin,  of  steel,  steely  acier,  steel 

anetin,  of  dill  anet,  dill 

armalin  (in  phrase  bestia  arma- 
lina,  horned  beast),  appears  to 
be  derived  on  animal,  the  word 
being  used  to  denote  some  spe- 
cial animal  as  the  cow  or  the  ox 

aurin,  of  gold,  golden   (Lat.  au-    aur,  gold 
reiis) 


ufHx 


boquin,  of  a  buck 
hreguin,  quarrelsome 
corin,  hearty,  heartfelt 
cornalin,^  carnehan         » 
foletin,  silly 
jumentin,  for  burdens 
lachin,  milk-giving 
marbrin,  of  marble 
moltonin,  of  sheep,  sheepish 
montadinj-  of  the  mountains 
mulatin,  of  mules,  mulish 
polprin,  of  purple  cloth 
saborin,  savory 
veirin, f  of  glass 


boc,  buck 

brega,  quarrel 

cor,  heart 

corn,  horn 

fold,  goblin 

jumen{t),  beast  of  burden 

lach,  milk 

marbre,  marble 

molton,  sheep 

montada,  hill,  mount 

mulat,  mule 

polpra,  purple  cloth 

sabor,  savor 

veire,  glass 


1  The  example  in  which  this  word  is  found  is  peira  cornalina.  It 
was  therefore,  at  this  time,  an  adjective.  Cornalin  would  appear  at 
first  sight  to  be  formed  of  corn  and  the  compound  suffix  -ALIN,  but 
probably  *cornela  existed  in  Prov.  (cf.  the  O.  Fr.  cornelle  on  which  the 
corneline,  referred  to  in  the  Die.  Gen.,  though  not  given  in  Godefroy,  was 
formed).  The  change  of  -ELIN  to  -ALIN  is  not  quite  clear.  For  Prov., 
armalin,  horned,  which  is  almost  what  cornalin  must  have  meant 
originally,  may  have  had  some  influence. 

-  Found  also  as  montazin,  montagin  and  montarin. 


t  Several  words  of  Lat.  origin  are  found,  most  of  them  being  formed 
on  names  of  animals.  Such  are  canin,  canine  <caninws;  equin,  equine  < 
equinus;  elephantin,  elephantine  <  el ephantinus;  lopin,  wolfish  <Zi<pmMs; 
mulin,  nwilish <mulinus;  orsin,  bearlike <Mrsinr<s;  and  ovin,  sheepish< 
ovinus.  Pecorin,  sheepish,  is  also  a  Lat.  formation  built  on  the  analogj' 
of  ovinus,  though  pecorinus  is  not  found.  Words  of  Lat.  origin  not 
formed  on  names  of  animals  are  marin,  marine  <»nann.MS,  and  peirin, 


320  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

The  words  formed  on  adjectives  are: 

hlanquin,  white  blanc,  white 

celestin,  blue  celeste,  celestial 

enteirin,  entire  entier,  entire 


-ION 

-ION  is  found  in  a  very  few  words  in  Provencal,  the 
onh'  apparent  representatives  of  the  Latin  suffix 
-(I)BUNDUS,  which  Cooper^  calls  "one  of  the  archaisms 
preserved  in  popular  speech  for  the  sake  of  the  heavy 
syllables,  rather  than  for  any  distinctive  meaning  that 
the  suffix  properly  had."     The  Provencal  words  are: 

fadion,  deprived  of,  frustrated  fadiar,  lack 

sazion,  f  satiated  saziar,  be  satiated 

-IS,    -ITZ    (-ADITZ,    -IDITZ) 

The  suffixes  -IS,  -ITZ,  and  -ADITZ  have  all  been 
treated  under  nouns,  although  originally  adjectival 
suffixes.  All  three  are  derived  from  the  Latin  -ICIUS. 
-IS  and  -ITZ  are  different  spellings  of  the  same  suffix, 
and  -ADITZ,  -IDITZ  represent  AT-ICIUS  and  IT- 
ICIUS,  or  Provengal  formations  on  the  past  participle  of 
a  Provengal  verb. 

We  find  -IS  added  as  a  suffix  to  the  stems  of  past 
participles  in: 

Jaitis,  well-made,  shapely  fait,  horn  far,  make 

fenhtis,  false  fenht,  from  fenher,  feign 

I  P.  93. 


of  stone  <pelrinus,  and  probably  also  jnezerin,  miserable  <*mtsermMS 
(cf .  the  O.  Fr.,  miserin) .  Aizin,  fitting,  has  not  the  suffix  -IN,  as  it  seems 
to  be  a  post-verbal  formation  on  aizinar,  with  the  same  meaning  that  is 
found  in  aizinat. 

t  Also  of  I>at.  origin,  jauzion,  joyful,  from  the  Lat.  gaudibundus, 
cited  in  Cooper,  95. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  321 

frachis,  flexible'  frach,  horn  franker,  break 

mestis,  of  mixed  breed  mest,  from  mescer,  mix 

tortis,  twisted  tort,  from  torser,  twist 

-ITZ  also  is  found  in  a  few  words: 
apostitz,  made-up,  artificial  apost,  from  aponre,  add,  join 

escostitz,  secret  escost,  from  escondre,  hide 

malautitz,  sickly  malaut,  ill,  from  male  hahitum 

natitz,^  native  nat,  from  naiser,  be  born 

-IS  or  -ITZ  is  apparently  added  also  to  simple  verb- 
stems^  in: 

braidis,^  neighing  braidir,  neigh,  cry 

doblitz,  double  doblar,  double 

The  formations  in  Provencal   in    -ADITZ    (or  -ITZ 

added  to  the  past  participles  of  regular  instead  of  irregular 

verbs)  are: 

escorjaditz,  to  be  flayed  escorjar,  flay 

esposaditz,  {anele.  =  wedding-ring)  ssposar,  marry 

estaditz,  spoiled  entar,  stand,  stay 

fermaditz{anelf.=hetvoth.a\-T'nig)  fermar,  close,  betroth 

gitaditz,  poured  out,  spilled  gitar,  throw,  pour  out 

laboraditz,  ploughable  laborar,  plough 

pozaditz,  that  may  be  drawn  pozar,  draw 

and  under -IDITZ: 

fugiditz,  fugitive,  fleeing  fugir,  flee 

this  last  and  possibly  some  of  the  others  showing  a  substi- 
tution of  -ICIUS  for  -IVUS  iljoXm.  fugitivus) . 

The  meanings  of  the  suffix  in  the  above  lists  are  rather 
difficult  to  classify. 

In  a  few  words  -IS  is  added  to  nouns : 

lachis  (also  lachin),  milk-giving         lack,  milk 
lanis,  woolen  lana,  wool 

1  Found  in  Appel,  but  not  in  Raynouard  or  Levy.  It  is  found  as 
natiz. 

'  This  new  kind  of  formation  is  probably  due  to  a  substitution  of 
-ITZ  for  -lU  from  -IVUS  (cf.  remark  on  fugiditz). 

'  Braidiu  also  exists  (see  under  -lU).  This  sufBx,  originally  attached 
to  past  participles,  was  joined  also  to  verb-stems  in  Lat.  times. 


322 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


masis,  massive,  full 
rnmis,  branched 

-ITZ  also  is  found  in: 

mairitz,  of  a  mother,  nursing 
podestaditz,  having  in  one's  power 


masa,  mass 
ram,  branch 


maire,  mother 
podestat,  power 


-lU 

-lU,  from  the  Latin  -IVUS,  is  found  as  a  suffix  in 

Provengal,  but  it  is  used  much  more  freely  than  -IVUS, 

which  was  added  in  Latin  usually  to  the  stem  of  the  past 

participle.^     Provengal  has  a  great  many  words  of  this 

kind,  but  they  are  mostly  descendants  of  Latin  words,  or 

else  learned  formations  on  the  Latin  model,  corresponding 

to  many  of  the  words  in  -IF  in  French.-     New  words  were, 

however,  formed  on  the  stem  of  the  verb^  in  many  cases, 

and  these  words  will  be  given  here:  '' 

adomniu,    dominating,    excellent,     dominar  (not  domnar),  dominate 

predominant 
adoniu,  generous 
agradiu,  agreeable,  pleasing 
aiziu,  near,  ready 
asolasiu,  entertaining 
hraidiu,  eager 
cargiu,  onerous 
celiii,  hidden,  secret 
cridiu,  tearful 

envaziu,  serving  for  invasion 
esforsiu,  zealous,  energetic 
faidiu,  banished 
forsiu,  strong 
jauziu,  rejoicing 
penhoriu,  pledgeable 


ndonar,  give,  intrust 
agradar,  please 
aizir,  receive 
asolasar,  entertain 
hraidir,  cry  out 
cargar,  load 
celar,  hide 
cridar,  cry 
envazir,  invade 
esforsar,  strive 
faidir,  banish 
forsar,  force 
jauzir,  rejoice 
penhorar,  pledge 


•  Later,  however,  added  also  to  adjectives  and  nouns,  as  in  vaciv^ls 
and  aestivum. 

2  As  significatif,  adfiesif,  etc. 

'  This  kind  of  formation  may  have  been  aided  by  the  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  verb-stem  was  similar  in  form  to  nouns,  as  in  the  case 
of  forsar  beside  forsa  or  cridar  beside  crit. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  323 

plegiu,  weak,  capricious  plegar,  bend 

preziu,  precious  prezar,  prize 

regardiu,  waiting,  disposed  regardar,  look  at,  wait  for 

remembriu,  mindful  rememhrar,  remember 

Besides  the  above  words,  pretty  certainly  formed 
on  verb-stems,  there  are  a  few  words  formed  in  other  ways. 
Thus  there  are  some  words  formed  on  Provencal  past 
participles : 

ajostatiu,  uniting  ajostat,  joined 

confortatiu,  comforting  confortat,  comforted 

descobertiu,  uncovered,  open  descobert,  uncovered 

ententiu,  attentive  enten{t),  attentive 

lamentatiu,  lamenting,  complaining   lamentat,  lamented 
mostratiu,  demonstrative  mostrat,  shown 

portatiu,  f  portable  portat,  carried 

A  word  formed  on  an  adjective  is 
umiliu,  humble  umil,  humble 

Here,  as  always  in  this  kind  of  formation,  the  suffix  is 
without  force. 

For  the  ending  -I  VOL,  see  under  -ABLE,  -IBLE,  p.  276. 

-O-LEN 

The  Provencal  ending  -LEN,  or  more  properly  -OLEN, 
occurs  in  very  few  words,  but  as  it  is  derived  from  the 
Vulgar  Latin  suffix  -LENTUS,^  and  as  it  is  found  in  at 

> -LENTUS  is  also  represented  in  the  Prov.  corporen(t),  showing 
an  assimilation  from  the  form  corpolen <corpulentus,  cited  in  Cooper,  133. 


t  These  words,  which  seem  to  be  Prov.  formations,  and  different, 
therefore,  from  such  words  as  significatiu,  show  the  continuation  in  Prov. 
of  the  Lat.  process  of  adding  the  suffix  to  past  participles.  The  addition 
of  the  suffix  -lU  makes  little  difference  in  the  meaning  of  descobert  and 
entent,  which  were  used  as  adjectives:  the  formation  of  descobertiu  and 
ententiu  is,  therefore,  in  accord  with  the  general  rule.  In  the  other 
words,  the  suffix  in  question  seems  to  be  -ATIU  (or  -AT,  the  participial 
ending  of  the  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation,  +-IU)  added  to  the  stem  of 
the  verb.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  the  combination  -ATIU 
cannot  have  been  formed  early  enough  for  the  t  to  have  become  voiced 
as  it  did  in  -ADITZ,  given  above. 


324  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

least  one  new  word,  it  must  take  its  place  among  the 

suffixes  used  in  Provencal.     The  possible  new  words  are: 

famolen,  hungry.    It  has  been  im- 
possible   to    find     *famulenius 

in  Latin,  but  such  a  formation 

almost     certainly     existed,    as 

derivatives  of  such  a  word  are 

found  in  French,  famolent,  and 

Italian,  famolento,    as   well  as 

in  Provengal. 
merdolen,  dirty  merda,  dung 

pudolen,  stinking  pudor,  stench 

suzolen,    greasy,    sweaty,    appar-     suzor,  perspiration 

ently  a  new  formation 

-OL 

The  suffix  -OL  is  found  in  one  word,  mespezol,  poorly 
weighed,  from  mespezar(  f),  weigh  badly.  See  the  nominal 
suffix  -OL  for  the  use  of  -OL  as  a  suffix. 

-OS 

The  Provengal  suffix  -OS,  although  exceedingly  com- 
mon, contains  no  great  difficulties.  It  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  -OSUS  joined  to  nouns  to  designate  (1)  quality 
and  (2)  abundance.  This  was  its  proper  use  in  Latin, 
but,  according  to  Cooper,^  in  Plebeian  and  Late  Latin,  it 
is  found  added  both  to  adjectives  and  to  verbs,  the  latter 
kind  of  formation  being  very  rare,  but  the  former  of  some 
frequency  on  account  of  giving  an  elongated  form  of  a 
word  without  changing  its  meaning  materially. 

The  following  words  are  formed  on  nouns: 

agidhos,  pointed  agulha,  needle 

aibos,  endowed  (with  a  quality)        aip,  quaUty 
aisos.  disgusted,  uneasy  aisa,  sadness 

amoros,    loving      (amorosus     not     amor,  love 

found,  but  compare  the  other 

Romance  languages) 
1  P.  124. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


325 


angoisos,  full  of  anguish 
artilhos,  dexterous,  clever^ 
artos,  sly,  cunning 
aurios,  crazy 

autoros,  weighty,  important 
aventuros,  fortunate 
avrilhos,  of  April 
aziros,  choleric 
baralhos,  quarrelsome 
bezonhos,  needy 
beltados,"^  beautiful 
blasmos,  blameworthy 
bonauros,^  luck-bringing 
boscos,  woody 
bragos,  muddy 
carestios,  of  famine,  want 
cavalairos,^  knightly 
clamos,  complaining 
cochos,  in  haste 
conortos,  satisfied 
coratjos,  courageous 
euros,  careful 
damnatjos,  injurious 
dangieros,  dangerous 
defecios,  powerless 
delechos,  delightful 
desdenhos,  disdainful 
desventuros,  unfortunate 
devotios,  devoted 


angoisa,  anguish 

artilha,  fortification 

art,  art 

auria,  frivolity 

autor,  guarantee,  voucher 

aventura,  adventure,  fortune 

aoril{h),  April 

azir,  hate 

baralh,  quarrel 

bezonh,  need 

beltat,  beauty 

blasma,  blame 

bonaw,  luck 

bosc,  wood 

brae,  mud 

carestia,  want 

cavalier,  knight 

clavi,  complaint 

cocha,  haste 

conort,  encouragement 

coratje,  courage 

mira,  care 

damnatje,  injury 

dangier,  danger 

defeci,  weakness 

delech,  delight 

desdenh,  disdain 

desventura,  misfortune 

devotion{?),*  devotion 


»  Here  the  connection  appears  to  be  with  art  rather  than  with  artilha. 
The  meaning  "fortification,"  however,  is  probably  a  late  and  a  special- 
ized translation  of  artilha,  the  original  meaning  being  "arts,"  and  due 
to  the  addition  of  the  collective  sufRx  -ILHA<Lat.  -ILIA  (see  p.  80, 
above).  Artilhos,  therefore,  would  naturally  mean  full  of  arts,  just  as 
artos  above  means  full  of  art,  sly.  For  artilhos,  see  also  double  suffixes, 
p.  386,  below. 

2  See  double  suffixes,  p.  386,  below. 

3  See  hybrid  formations,  p.  581,  below. 

*  There  exists  also  the  adjective  devot,  on  which  devotios  might  be 
formed.  Its  peculiar  form,  however,  devotios  instead  of  devotos,  makes 
it  seem  likely  to  have  been  formed  from  a  confusion  of  the  two  words. 
There  seems  to  be  only  one  example  of  the  word,  in  which  it  is  spelled 
devotioux. 


326 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


dios,  aged 

encotnbros,  embarrassed 

enganos,  deceptive 

escientos,  wise 

fangos,  muddy 

fastigos,  tiresome  ( ?) 

ferezos,  ferocious,  frightful 

fiansos,  trusting 

ficos,  covered  with  fig-warts 

filos,  hairy 

flemos,  phlegmatic 

forfachos,  guilty,  criminal 

frnchuros,  indigent 

frejuros,  frosty,  cold 

gaiijos,  joyful 

ginhos,  skilful 

golos,^  greedy 

gotos,  gouty 

graisos,  greasy 

greujos,  injurious 

iros,  angry 

janglos,  slanderous 

jogos,  jocular 

joios,  joyous 

lebros,  leprous 

lengos,  talkative 

lezeros,  at  leisure 

lugoros,  gleaming 

malauros,^  unfortunate 

malencolios,  melancholy 

meravelhos,  marvellous;  astonished 

miserios,  miserable 

morinos,  sickly 

mostos,  dirty 

murmurios,  complaining 

neceiros,  needy 

negocios,  busy 

nelechos,  guilty,  wrong 

nozelos,  knotty 

nualhos,  lazy 

1  There  is  also  a  uoun  goiicios, 
substantively  and  formed  on  *golicia 

2  See  also  hybrids,  p.  581,  below 


dia,  day 

encomhre,  embarrassment 
engan,  deception 
escien{t),  knowledge 
fane,  mud 
fastic,  annoyance 
fereza,  fear,  horror 
fiansa,  trust 

fi<^,  fig 

fil,  thread,  hair 

flema,  phlegm 

forfach,  crime 

frachitra,  want 

frejura,  cold 

gauch,  joy 

ginh,  skill,  artifice 

gola,  gluttony 

goto,  gout 

graisa,  grease 

greuch,  injury 

ira,  anger 

jangla,  slander 

joe,  joke 

joi,  joy 

lepra,  leper 

lenga,  tongue 

lezer,  leisure 

lugor,  light 

malaur,  misfortune 

malencolia,  sadness 

nieravelha,  marvel 

miseria,  misery 

morina,  mortality;  epidemic 

most,  must 

murmuri,  murmuring 

neceira,  lack,  dearth 

negoci,  affair,  business 

neleeh,  wrong,  fault 

nozel,  knot 

nualh{a),  laziness 

apparently  only  an  adjective  used 
,  greed. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


327 


omicidios,  murderous 

ontos,  shameful 

orduros,  dirty 

orgolhos,^  proud;  savage 

palazinos,  lame 

paratjos,  distinguished 

perezos,  lazy  (pezeros  also  found) 

perttisos,  porous 

pezansos,  sad;  suspicious 

pezolhos,^  lousy 

pintados,  pitying 

plows,  tearful  (also  ploiros) 

poderos,  powerful 

podragos,  gouty 

polsos,^  powdery,  dusty 

profechos,  powerful 

rainos,  quarrelsome 

rancuros,  rancorous 

rozilhos,  rusty 

sofrachos,  needy 

sonhos,  careful 

sospechos,  suspicious 

tacos,  soiled 

talentos,  desirous 

tensonos,  quarrelsome 

irebalhos,  painful 

valoros,  valorous 

vertudos,  virtuous 

voluntados,'\  desirous 


omicidi,  murder 
onta,  shame 
ordura,  dirt,  filth 
orgolh,  pride 
palazin,  lameness 
paratge,  lineage 
pereza,  laziness 
pertus,  hole 
pezansa,  thought,  care 
pezolh,  louse 
piatat,  pity 

plor,  tear,  lamentation 
poder,  power 
podraga,  gout 
pals,  powder,  dust 
profech,  power 
raina,  quarrel 
rancura,  rancor 
rozilh,  rust 
sofracha,  lack,  want 
sonh,  care 

*sospecha,*  suspicion 
taca,  spot 
talen{t),  desire 
tenson,  quarrel 
trebalh,  pain,  torture 
valor,  valor 
vertut,  virtue 
voluntat,  desire 


»  This  and  other  words,  such  as  ploros,  valoros,  and  vertudos,  given 
above,  are  found  in  most  of  the  Romance  languages,  but  no  common 
source  is  to  be  found  in  Lat. 

2  Pediculosus  is  found  in  Cooper,  129,  with  peduculosus,  the  source  of 
pezolhos,  mentioned  in  a  note. 

3  For  polsos,  with  another  meaning,  see  the  formations  on  verbs. 

*  Although  this  noun  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  its  existence  may  be 
assumed  (cf.  Sp.  sospecha  and  corresponding  words  in  other  languages). 
It  would  be  formed  from  the  past  participle  suspectus,  from  suspicere, 
and  probably  gave  rise  to  the  verb  sospechar. 


t  Also,  of  Lat.  origin  are  gracios,  graciousKgratiosus;  malicios, 
wicked,  smgryKmalitiosus;  pelos,  hairy  <pilosus;  penes,  painfuK 
penosus;  plumes,   feathery  <.plumosus;    polveros,  powdery  <.  pulverosus; 


328 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


The  words  formed  on  adjectives  have,  as  usual,  hardly 

any  change  in  meaning  from  that  of  the  single  word : 

avaros,  avaricious 

catolios,  Catholic 

duros,  hard 

escuros,  dark 

falbelos,^  pale 

fetos,  stinking 

grevos,  difficult 

nialignos,  spoiled,  tainted 

paurugos,  fearful 

largos,  generous 

ricos,  proud,  powerful 

seguros,  assured,  tranquil 

tardios,  f  tardy,  slow,  appears  to  be 

derived  from  tardi  (not  found), 

a  form  of  tardiu<tardivus,  in 

the  same  way  that  joli  from 

joliu    (French  joli   from  jolif) 

has  come  about. 

The  formations  on  verb-stems  are  as  follows : 


avar,  avaricious 

catoli{c),  Catholic 

dur,  hard 

escur,  dark 

falbel,  pale 

fet,  loathsome,  fetid 

greu,  hard 

maligne,  bad,  maleficent 

paiiruc,  fearful 

larc,  broad,  liberal 

ric,  rich,  powerful 

segur,  sure 


abauzar,  upset 
abdurar,  endure 
abominar,  abominate 
abondar,  abound 
aontar,  degrade 
cobejar,  covet 
cobezejar,  covet 


ahauzos,  prostrate 
abduros,  long-enduring 
abominos,  abominable 
abondos,  abundant 
aontos,  ashamed 
cobejos,^  covetous 
cobezejos,  covetous 

1  See  double  suffixes,  p.  387. 

2  Another  word  in  -OS  meaning  covetous — co6ei<os— evidently 
comes  from  the  Lat.  cupiditosus,  but  not  directly.  Paris  {Romania, 
XXIII,  285)  would  explain  such  forms  as  this  by  *cupedietosus,  brought 
about  by  confusion  with  cupedia  (found  for  cuppedia,  a  dainty). 

sancnos,  hloody  <.sanguinosus;  somelhos,  sleepy<.  soniniculosus;  and 
verenos,  poisonous <ven.enosus.  Probably  lipos,  bleared,  should  be  placed 
here  also.  Lippus,  dripping  (used  of  the  eyes),  is  found  in  Lat.,  and 
lipposus  seems  to  be  a  late  and  learned  formation  on  it.  O.  Fr.  has  such 
learned  words  as  lipposite.  An  obscure  word  is  milhargos,  measled 
(used  of  pigs).  Guiscos,  sticky,  seems  to  represent  viscosus  under  Germ, 
influence. 

t  Also  of  Lat.  origin,  ebrios  and  ivros,  drunk,  both  coming  from 
ebriosus. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


329 


cremos,  fearful 
enartos,  crafty,  sly 


endenhos,  indignant 
enojos,  annoying 

entalentos,  desirous 

enverinos,  poisonous 

escandalizos,  scandal-raising 

espantos,  full  of  terror 

gastos,  liberal 

iraisos,  irritable 

morios  (in  phrase  earn  in.,    flesh 

of  an  animal  dead  of  disease) 
piatos,^  pitying 
plegos,  inclined 
polsos,  suffering  from  palpitation 

of  the  heart 
trauquilhos, f  full  of  holes 

Dormilhos,  sleepy,  seems  to 
har,  to  take  naps  (not  found). 


cremer,  fear 

enartar  (meaning  not  clear,  but 

Levy    suggests    "arrange 

craftily") 
endenhar,  he  indignant 
enojar,  annoy  (or  possibly  formed 

on  noun  enueg) 
entalentar,  be  eager,  hasty 
enverinar,  poison 
escandalizar,  scandalize 
espantar,  terrify 
gastar,  spend 
iraiser,  grow  angry 
morir,  die 

piadar,  make  pious  ( ?) 

plegar,  bend 

polsar,  beat,  palpitate 

trauquilhar,  pierce  holes 
be  derived  from  a  *dormil- 


-OTGE 

-OTGE  must  be  placed  here  as  an  adjective  sufRx, 
though    found   in   very   few   words   in    Provengal.     For 

•  This  word  from  its  meaning,  however,  seems  rather  to  be  formed 
on  piatat,  pity,  which  would  give  regularly  piatados  (see  p.  327).  Its 
formation  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Fr.  piteux,  which  the  Hatzfeld- 
Darmesteter  dictionary  derives  from  a  Lat.  *pietosum  with  the  meaning 
of  pieiat-\-  -OSUS.  Other  formations  exactly  similar  to  piatos  (i.  e.,  the 
suffix  -TAT  has  disappeared)  are  denhitos,  full  of  worth,  apparently 
from  denhitat;  caritos,  charitable,  apparently  from  caritat;  necesitos, 
needy,  apparently  from  necesitat;  and  plentados,  rich,  apparently  from 
plentat. 


t  Other  more  obscure  words  in  -OS  are:  famelhos,  hungry,  from 
*famiculosus  ?  (cf.  fameillos,  -eux,  etc.,  in  O.  Fr.) ;  fersios,  wild,  savage, 
cruel,  possibly  from /erocia-|- the  suffix  -OS,  with  the  intertonic  syllable 
dropped.  Another  interesting  word  is  poiregos,  rotten  <putricosus{?). 
For  commentary,  see  p.  356,  below. 


330  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

these,  the  source  must  have  been  a  Latin  -OTICUS, 
probably  modeled  on  the  commoner  suffix  -ATICUS. 
For  example,  in  Provengal  there  is  a  word  ferotge,  ferocious, 
which  must  have  been  derived  homferoticus,  a  form  which 
would  account  for  the  -words  in  the  other  Romance  lan- 
guages— ^French  farouche,  etc. — OTICUS  undergoing  a 
similar  development  to  that  of  -ATICUS.  This  word 
feroticus  itself,  however,  is  only  a  deformation  of  ferox, 
due  probably,  to  the  analogy  of  silvaticus.  Then  the 
similarity  of  meaning  might  easily  lead  to  the  creation 
of  irotge  on  ira,  anger.  Ivernotge,  of  winter,  is  evi- 
dently a  Provengal  formation  by  means  of  -OTGE 
on  iver{n),  but  no  starting-point  for  such  a  creation 
is  evident  here.  Estiiivotga  (a  noun)  also  exists,  but  its 
meaning  is  not  clear.  The  probable  Provengal  formations, 
then,  are: 

irotge,  angry  ira,  anger 

ivernotge,  of  winter  iver{n),  winter 

-UT 

The  Provengal  -UT  is  derived  from  a  Latin  -UTUS, 
which  differs  in  meaning  from  the  other  suffixes  of  the 
group,  -AT  and  -IT,  and  therefore  has  been  registered 
here  separately.  These  three  suffixes  in  their  adjectival 
use  were  treated  above,  and  then  the  words  in  which  -AT 
and  -IT  were  added  to  nouns  were  listed,  in  which  cases 
the  idea  of  possession  was  always  clear. ^  But  -UT  has 
taken  a  new  development  of  meaning.  It  not  only 
indicates  possession,  but  generally  possession  of  some 
physical  characteristic  of  prominence.     Latin  had  manu- 

1  Thus  coratjat,  bold,  i.e.,  possessing  courage;  anat,  old,  i.e., 
possessing  years,  etc.     See  p.  304,  above  for  the  list. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


331 


tus  and  nasutus^  as  a  starting-point  for  new  formations  of 
the  kind^: 


alid,  winged 

barbut,  bearded 

brancut,  branching,  forked 

cambarut,^  cambut,^  long-legged 

carnut,  fleshy 

coput,  hollow  (of  cups  and  plates) 

crinut,  hairy 

espalut,  broad-shouldered 

folhut,  leafy 

golut,  greedy 

guinhonut,  be  whiskered 

lanut,  woolly,  wool-bearing 

lengut,  talkative 

maucut,  fat 

membrut,  large-limbed 

morut,  thick-lipped 

nozut,  knotty 

pelhut,  hairy 

ponchut,  pointed 

ramut,  branching 

saberut,  learned 


ala,  wing 
barba,  beard 
branc,  branched 
camba,  leg 
earn,  flesh 
copa,  cup 
crin,  hair 
espala,  shoulder 
folk,  leaf 
gola,  throat 
guinhon,  whiskers 
lana,  wool 
lenga,  tongue 
mauca,  belly 
membre,  limb 
mor,  snout 
nos,  knot 
pelh,  hair 
ponch,  point 
ram,  branch 
saber,  knowledge 


Added  to  an  adjective  with  no  change  in  meaning,  it  is 

seen  in: 

calvut,  bald  calv,  bald 

1  Also  canutus,  represented  in  Prov.  by  canut,  white-haired. 

-  Other  words,  too,  which  in  Lat.  had  -ATUS  or  -ITUS  are  found 
with  -UT  in  Prov.,  showing  the  restriction  of  this  meaning  to  the  suffix 
-UT.  Thus,  we  find  barbut,  carnut,  and  ramut  in  Prov.  as  opposed  to 
barbatus,  carnatus,  and  ramatus  in  Classic  Lat. ;  also  crinut  in  Prov.  and 
crinitus  in  Lat. 

3  Cambut  would  of  course  be  the  word  regularly  formed  on  camba. 
This  inserted  -ar-,  however,  though  found  in  O.  Prov.  only  in  this  word 
before  -UT,  is  very  common  in  the  modern  language,  as  is  seen  from  the 
list  given  in  the  Essais,  250.  It  is  found  also  in  Sp.  in  testarudo.  This 
-ar-,  probably  due  to  a  false  etymology,  is  found  also  in  other  words,  as  in 
balaresc  (p.  187,  n.  f).     See  Diez,  Grammaire  des  langues  romanes,  II,  259. 


CHAPTER  III 

FORMATION  OF  VERBS 

The  third  kind  of  words  commonly  formed  by  the 
addition  of  suffixes  is  the  verl),  whose  formation  in  Pro- 
vengal,  as  elsewhere  in  Romance,  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  the  noun  and  the  adjective,  in  that  most  of 
the  suffixes  found  are  not,  simple  developments  of  single 
Latin  suffixes,  but,  on  the  contrary,  compound  ones 
made  up  of  a  nominal  suffix  plus  the  verbal  endings 
-are  or  -ire.^  These  verbal  endings  in  their  Provencal 
forms  -ar  and  -ir  are  themselves  used  as  suffixes  to 
form  new  words,  and  are  practically  the  only  examples 
of  simple  suffixes  found.^  The  other  suffixes,  as  -ALHAR, 
-ASAR,  -EJAR,  and  -INAR,  were  formed  by  adding 
-AR  in  a  number  of  cases  to  nouns  already  ending  in 
-ALH,  -AS,  or  some  other  suffix,  which  suffix  came  to  be 
regarded  finally  as  part  of  the  verbal  ending.^  The  simple 
suffixes  or  verbal  endings,  -AR  and  -IR,  will  be  treated  first; 
then  will  follow  in  alphabetical  order  the  compound  forms. 

SUFFIX    -AR 

The  suffix  -AR  was  added  generally  to  nouns  and 
adjectives^  to  forms  new  verbs.  It  was  added  especiallj- 
commonly  to  nouns,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 

'  Thus  these  verbal  endings  are  used  as  suffixes  in  this  chapter. 
They  will  consequently  be  given  here,  and  here  only,  in  the  type  regularly 
used  for  suffixes.     The  same  is  true  of  the  compound  forms. 

2  Thus  the  Lat.  -lARE  is  not  found  as  a  suffix  in  Prov.,  nor  is 
-ESCERE  in  new  words,  and  even  the  more  popular  -ICARE  is  rare. 

5  As  with  all  compound  suffixes,  this  was  probably  due  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  word  with  the  single  suffix;  or  its  minor  importance 
as  compared  with  the  simple  word. 

•  Also  occasionally  to  past  participles.     See  p.  344. 
332 


Formation  of  Verbs 


333 


lists.  -AR  was  added  so  very  freely  and  indiscriminately  to 
nouns  that  its  uses  are  somewhat  difficult  to  describe.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  that  the  force  given  to  the  noun  by 
the  suffix  may  often  be  rendered  by  to  "cover  with," 
"fill  with,"  "put  on,"  "have,"  "use,"  "equip  with," 
etc.^  The  various  meanings  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
lists : 


abisar,  sink,  swallow  up 

aceirar,  cover  with  steel 

afarar{se),  set  to  work 

agar,  water 

agulhar,  sew 

aizinar- (se),  approach;  arrange 

albergar,  lodge 

albirar,  imagine 

almornar,  give  alms 

amorar,^  feel  love  for 

angoisar,  be  pained 

antar,  dishonor 

aposturar,  unite 

argentar,  plate  with  silver 

arnescar,  equip 

arpar,  play  the  harp 

astelar,  break 

astrar,  predestine 

ausbergar,  put  on  hauberk 

auzelar,  hunt  birds 

azemprar,  solicit 

balansar,  weigh 


abis,  abyss 

acier,  steel 

afar,  affair 

aga(aiga),  water 

agulha,  needle 

aizina,  comfort,  commodity 

alberc,  lodging,  dwelling,  home 

albir,  opinion 

almosna,  alms 

amor,  love 

angoisa,  anguish 

anta,  shame 

apostura,  joining 

argen(t),  silver 

arnesc,  equipment 

arpa,  harp 

astela,  splint 

astre,  star 

ausberc,  hauberk 

auzel,  bird 

azempre,  request 

balansa,  balance,  scales 


»  It  is  impossible  to  give  all  the  meanings  that  the  suffix  may  have, 
as  these  depend  on  the  noun  itself.  Thus,  the  meaning  is  generally, 
but  not  always,  clear,  from  the  meaning  of  the  noun.  The  force  given 
by  the  suffix  seems  to  be  practically  that  which  is  found  in  Engl,  in 
the  use  of  nouns  as  verbs  without  change,  as  cement  and  to  cement; 
a  button  and  to  button;  a  hammer  and  to  hammer,  etc. 

2  The  development  of  meaning  here  is  somewhat  peculiar.  Thomas, 
Essais,  2.34,  in  a  long  article  on  the  Fr.  aise  and  the  Prov.  aise,  saj'S 
nothing  about  this.  There  is  also  a  noun  aizin,  dwelling,  and  an  adjective 
aizin,  comfortable,  ready,  from  which  the  verb  might  be  derived.  The 
meaning  of  "approach"  may  be  connected  with  the  word  for  "dwelling." 

'  Also  reflexive,  meaning  "to  fall  in  love  with." 


334 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


barrar,  close,  bar 

harutelar,  bolt,  sift  (flour) 

bastar,  saddle 

batalhar,  fight,  struggle 

batumar,  stop  up  with  cement 

bec{h)ar,  peck  at 

beneficiar,  benefit 

beordar,  joust 

bezonhar,  need 

biaisar,  slant,  use  shifts,  evasions 

bisesiar,  delay 

bistensar,  trouble,  annoy 

blocar,  emboss,  indent,  bruise 

bobansar  (se),  boast 

bolar,  limit 

botonar,  button 

bozinar,    make  a  noise,  murmur, 

rail  at,  act  foolishly 
bozolar,  limit 

brancar,  put  forth  branches 
bresar,  rock 

brezilhar,^  break,  break  up 
brocar,  prick 

brumal',  form  mist,  be  misty 
bugadar,  wash,  whitewash 
cadenar,  chain 
caminar,^  journey 
capdelar,  govern 
carbonar,  turn  into  coal 
cavalhar,  ride,  practice  knightly  art 
cavilhar,    use     subterfuges     or 

subtleties 
cazar,  provide 
cembar,  strike  cymbals 
cembelar,  decoy,  allure 
cicatrizar,^  heal  over 


barra,  bar 

barutel,  bolter 

basl,  pack-saddle 

batalha,  fight 

batum,  cement 

bee,  beak 

benefici,  benefit,  kindness 

beort,  tourney 

bezonh,  need 

biais,  slant,  shift 

bisest,  bissextile  day 

bisiensa,  hesitation 

bloca,  dent,  lump 

bobansa,  ostentation 

bola,  limit,  boundary 

boton,  button 

bozina,  trumpet 

bozola,  limit 
branc,  branch 
bres,  cradle 
brezilh,  brazil-wood 
broc,  spit,  rod 
bruma,  mist 
bugada,  lye,  washing 
cadena,  chain 
camin,  road,  way 
capdel,  lord,  owner 
carbon,  coal 
cavalh,  horse 
cavilha,  banter,  raillery 

caza,  house,  hut 
cemba,  cymbal 
cembel,  decoy,  lure 


1  Korting  (No.  1,576)  and  Raynouard,  II,  260,  connect  this  word  with 
brizar,  break,  but  it  is  hard  to  see  how  the  form  will  allow  it.  See  Die 
Gen.,  "bresiller." 

2  Possibly  of  Lat.  origin,  as  it  is  found  in  most  of  the  Romance 
languages. 

3  The  noun  *cicatriz  is  not  found  in  the  Prov.  dictionaries,  but 
prohal^ly  exi.sted.     Cf.  Fr.  cicatrice. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


335 


clavelar,  nail  up 

cledar,  provide  with  pens 

clocar,  ring 

colar,  embrace 

colorar,  color 

colpar,  strike 

comairar,  make  weekly  visit 

cotnjadar,  dismiss,  give  leave  to 

companhar,  accompany 

conhar,  strengthen  with  a  wedge 

contornar,  clasp,  enclose 

cordalar,^  measure  with  a  "corda" 

cordurar,  sew 

cornar,  play  the  horn 

correjar,  bind  together 

cozinar,  cook 

crestianar,  convert 

dalhar,  cut  with  scythe 

damnatjar,  damage 

dechar,  deceive 

defautMT,  be  lacking 

destrar,  measure 

devizar,  tell,  relate 

doctrinar,  preach 

domanar,^  possess 

dorsar,  thrash 

drechurar,  aim  at  right  goal 

elhausar,  lighten 

embanar,  fortify  with  "embans" 

emplastrar,  put  on  a  plaster 

encensar,  sprinkle  incense 

encorsar,  confiscate 

enfantar,  bear  (children) 

engenhar,  contrive 

entresenhar,  decorate  with  flags 

eretar  (ereditar),  inherit 

escar,  eat 

escalar,  scale,  climb 


clavel,  nail 

cleda,  pen 

cloca,  bell 

col,  neck 

color,  color 

colp,  blow 

coma  ire,  gossip 

comjat,  leave 

companh,  companion 

conh,  wedge 

contorn,  surroimding,  outline 

corda,  a  kind  of  measure 

Cardura,  semng 

corn,  horn 

correja,  strap 

cozina,  kitchen,  cooking 

crestian.  Christian 

dalh,  scythe 

damnatje,  damage 

decha,  fault 

defaut,  lack,  fault 

destre,  a  measure 

devis,  speech 

doctrina,  doctrine 

domaine,  domain 

dors,  back 

drechura,  uprightness 

elhaus,  lightning 

emban,  enclosure 

emplnstre,  plaster 

encens,  incense 

encors,  confiscation 

enfan{t),  child 

engenh,  spirit,  genius 

entresenh,  ensign 

eret,  heir 

esc,  nourishment 

escala,  stair 


1  Cordal  is  not  to  be  found,  apparently,  though  it  probably  existed. 

2  A  word  ending  in  -AR,  but  formed  by  means  of  another  sufBx  is 
doloirar,  suffer,  existing  beside  dolor,  pain.  The  i  before  the  -AR  makes 
it  clear  that  it  is  not  -ARE  but  -lARE  that  is  represented  in  the  word. 


336 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


escalhar,  break  to  pieces 
escaramusar,  skirmish 
esclapar,  cut,  split 
escobar,  sweep 
escombrar,^  clean  up 
escrinar,  support,  prop 
escrinhar,  put  in  a  chest 
escudar,  cover  with  a  shield 
escudelar,'^  empty  a  bowl 
escumar,  skim 
esglaiar,-  frighten 
esparronar,  provide  with  posts 
espasmar,  faint 
espazar,  equip  with  a  sword 
espelhar,  mirror  oneself 
esperonar,  spur  on 
esplechar,  exploit,  use 
esquilgachar,  hold  watch 
estacar,  fasten 
estalbiar,  save,  spare 
estanhar,  tin 
estatjar,  support 
estivar,  play  pipe 
estivar,  harvest 
estoriar,  state,  represent 
estradar,  cover 
estrilhar,  curry 

estropar,  wrap   up   in   swaddling- 
clothes 
estrunar,  encourage 
estudiar,^  study 
estujar,  put  in  a  case 
fachilhar,  bewitch 
fachurar,  bewitch,  enchant 
faisar,  bind 

faisonar,  fashion,  form,  etc. 
far  gar,  forge 


escalh,  splinter 
escaramusa,  skirmish 
esclapa,  splinter 
escoba,  broom 
escombre,  rubbish 
escrin,  box,  case 
escrin,  box,  case 
escut,  shield 
escudela,  bowl 
escunia,  foam 
esglai,  fear,  pain 
esparron,  post 
espasme,  spasm 
espaza,  sword 
espelh,  mirror 
esperon,  spur 
esplecha,  rent 
esquilgacha,  watch 
estaca,  fastening 
estalbi,  saving,  sparing 
estanh,  tin 
estatja,  stay 
estiva,  pipe 
estiu,  summer 
estoria,  history,  story 
estrada,  platform,  cover 
estrilha,  curry-comb 
estrop,  strap 

estrun,  courage 
estudi,  study 
estug,  case,  box 
fachilha,  charm 
fachura,  charm 
faisa,  band 
faison,  fashion 
farga,  forge 


1  Esco77ibrar  and  escudelar  seem  to  show  the  direct  opposite  of  the 
usual  meaning,  "to  fill  with." 

-  There  is  also  another  verb  esglaiar,  kill  with    the  sword,  a  para- 
synthetic  formation  on  glai,  sword. 

3  Found  in  most  of  the  Romance  languages,  but  not  in  Lat. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


337 


fazendar  (only  fazendat  found) 

fenar,  make  hay 

feriar,  to  celebrate,  fete 

ferrar,  provide  with  iron-work 

festar,  celebrate 

fiansar,  guarantee,  promise 

filhar,  adopt 

finar,  end 

flautelar,  play  the  flute 

flautjolar,  play  the  flute 

flestelar,^  play  the  flute 

flocar,^  spread  about 

florar,  bloom 

foetar,  whip 

fogasar,  cook  "fogasas" 

folhar,  put  forth  leaves 

forcar,  fork 

forestar,  exercise  right  of  foresting 

formatjar,  make  cheese 

formigar,  swarm 

fornilhar,  provide  with  twigs 

forsar,^  force 

frachurar,  want,  lack 

frangar,  fringe 

frevolar  {ir),  weaken 

frezar,  shell  beans 

frontadar,  border  upon 

fugar,  put  to  flight 

furetar,  hunt  with  ferret 

furonar,  hunt  with  ferret 

fustar,  provide  with  woodwork 

gabar,  joke,  boast 

gachar,  spy  on 

galonar,  trim,  face 

garentar,  guarantee,  pledge 

gatjar,  pledge 


fazenda,  occupation 

fen,  hay 

feria,  festival 

fer,  iron 

festa,  feast,  festival 

fiansa.  trust,  faith 

filh,  son 

fin,  end 

flautel,  flute 

flautjol,  flute 

flestel,  flute 

floe,  flake 

flor,  flower 

foet,  whip 

fogasa,  kind  of  roll 

folh,  leaf 

fore,  fork 

forest,  forest 

formatje,  cheese 

formic,  ant 

fornilha,  twig 

forsa,  force 

frachura,  lack 

franga,  fringe 

frevol,  weak 

freza,  a  kind  of  shelled  bean 

frontada,  border 

/wga,  flight 

furet,  ferret 

furon,  ferret 

fust,  wood 

gab,  boast 

gacha,  sentinel 

galon,  stripe,  border 

garen{t),  guaranty 

gatje,  pledge 


1  There  is  still  another  verb  of  this  meaning,  flanzar,  but  it  is  not 
formed  on  a  Prov.  noun  by  use  of  the  suffix  -AR.  Possibly  we  have 
-lARE,  not  -ARE,  inflauzar. 

■  Floiica  in  Mistral  has  a  meaning  more  closely  connected  with  the 
noun.     It  means  "to  provide  with  tufts  or  flakes." 

2  Or  possibly  from  a  Lat.  fortiare. 


338 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


gaujnr,  measure,  weigh 

gavanhar,^  injure,  harm,  destroy 

gazalhar,  associate  with 

gazardonar,  reward 

gemar,  stud  \vith  gems 

genolhar,  kneel 

gironar,  turn  about 

giurar,  prick  Uke  viper  (?) 

glasar,  freeze 

glenar,  glean 

gloznr,  gloss 

gorbelar,  measure  with  basket 

gotar,  drop 

graciar,  pardon 

granar,  produce  grain 

grapar,  scratch,  tear 

graiizar,  murmur,  complaint 

grezar,  pave  with  stone 

grilar,  sift  through 

gropar,  knot,  bind 

guilar,  deceive 

guirlandar,  wreathe 

ipotecar,  mortgage 

joncar,  strew  with  reeds 

justiciar,  do  justice 

laidenjar,  insult 

laironar,  rob 

lardar,  interlard 

latar,  cover  with  laths 

latinar,  speak  Latin 

lauzar,  cover  with  slabs 

lauzenjar,  flatter 

lenhar,  collect  wood 

leonar,  bring  forth  lions 

lermar,  weep 

leudar,  raise  the  "leuda"  tax 

lezerar,  have  leisure 

linmar,  bind,  attach 


gaujn,  measure;  also  a  tax 

gavanh,  gull 

gazalha,  association 

gazardon,  reward 

gema,  gem 

genolh,  knee 

giron,  turn,  belt 

giure,  viper 

glasa,  ice 

glena  (in  phrase  g.  de  gel),  icicle 

gloza,  gloss 

gorbel,  basket 

goto,  drop 

graci,  pardon 

gran,  grain 

grapa,  claw 

graiiza,  complaint 

greza,  a  thick  dirt  (?) 

gril(h),  sieve 

gfrop,  knot 

jm'Za,  deceit 

guirlanda,  wreath 

ipoteca,  mortgage 

jonc,  reed 

juslicia,  justice 

laidenja,  insult 

lair  on,  robber 

lart,  lard,  bacon 

lata,  lath 

latin,  Latin 

lauza,  slab 

lauzenja,  flattery 

lenha,  wood 

leon,  lion 

lerma,  tear 

leuda,  a  tax 

Zezer,  leisure 

Zio,?/?,  bond 


'  Gavanhar  is  rather  obscure,  but  appears  to  be  connected  with 
gavanh,  gull  (a  bird  of  prey,  hence  the  meaning).  Then  from  gavanhar 
was  formed  the  abstract  gavanhamen  and  apparently  also  a  postverhal 
gava7ih,  with  the  same  abstract  meaning,  "injury."  Compare  gazanha- 
men  and  gazanh  on  gazanhar. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


339 


linhar,  set  in  line 
listar,  cover  with  stripes 
lograr,  make  a  present 
loirar,  lure 
lotjar,  lodge 

maestrar,  arrange  skilfully 
maizonar,  build  a  house 
malenconiar  (se),  become  sad 
malhar,  make  links  of  a  shirt  of  mail 
malholar,  wrap  up,  swaddle 
maneblar,  handle,  manipulate 
manegar,  provide  with  a  handle 
mantelar,  wrap  up 
viarcar  (also   mercar),   border  on; 
trample  on,  march,  stamp;  arrest 
martelhar,  hammer 
martiriar,  torture 
masar,  strike 
masonar,  wall  up 
mazedar,^  subdue,  soften  ( ?) 
mazelhar,  kill,  butcher 
meaihar  ( ?) 

medalhonar,  put  in  piles 
meitadar,  divide  in  half 
meravelhar,  marvel 
mercadar,  bargain 
mercandar,  trade 
meslanhar,  quarrel 
mestivar,  glean 
metjar,  take  medicine 
mezinar,  take  medicine 
moldurar,  collect  tax  for  grinding 
molherar,  marry 
molinar,'^  sink,  fall  in 


linha,  line 

lista,  band,  stripe 

logre,  present 

loire,  snare,  lure 

lotja,  lodge 

maesfjre,  master 

maizon,  house 

malenconia,  sadness 

malha,  link  of  a  shirt  of  mail 

malhol,  slip,  cutting 

maneble,  maniple 

manegue,  handle 

mantel,  mantle 

marca,  boundary;  stamp;  arrest 

martelh,  hammer 
martiri,  torture 
masa,  club 
mason,  mason 
mazeda,  farmhouse 
mazelh,  slaughter 
mealha,  halfpenny;   medal 
medalhon,  pile  of  hay 
meitat,  half 
meravelha,  marvel 
mercat,  market 
mercan{t),  merchant 
meslanha,  quarrel 
mestivas,  harvest-time 
metje,  physician 
mezina,  medicine 
moldura,  grinding 
ynolher,  woman,  wife 
molin,  mill 


1  Apparently  the  meaning,  although  Levy  gives  no  translation.  The 
noun  mazeda,  itself,  is  found  only  in  the  little  Levy.  The  verb  used  of 
animals  seem  to  have  the  force  of  "accustom  to  the  farm." 


■  The  connection  with  the  simple  word  may  not  be  obvious,  but  the 
development  of  the  verb  seems  to  have  been  "to  grind,"  "to  whirl  about," 
"to  rush  along  whirling,"  and,  used  as  the  verb  is,  of  a  mountain,  in  the 
only  example,  it  has  come  to  mean  "to  sink  away."  This  translation, 
however  (Fr.  s'ebouler),  is  given  only  in  the  little  Levy. 


340 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


monedar,  coin 

monjar  (se),  become  a  nun 

morinar,  perish,  be  consumed 

moscar,  drive  away  flies 

muzar,^  muse 

nehlar  {se),  be  destroyed  by  fog 

nerviar,  pro\-ide  with  nerves 

niar,  nest 

nielar,  enamel 

noscar,  put  in  beams 

nozelar,  knot 

oliar,  oil  ( ?) 

oltraljar,  insult,  outrage 

opresar^,  oppress 

ordilhar  (se) ,  supply  oneself  with 

tools 
organar,   organize 

orgulhar,  make  proud 

ortigar,  prick  with  nettles 

oscar,  make  or  become  jagged 

osialar,  lodge 

osiatjar,  lodge 

padoensar,  cut  or  gather  wood 

paironar,  see  patronar 

paiselar,  set  up  stakes 

palar,  spade,  dig 

palhar,  cover  with  straw 

pasionar,  torment 

pastar,  crush,  make  paste  of 

pasturar,  pasture,  feed 

paliar,  come  to  an  agreement 

paironar,  make  a(;cording  to  the 

standard 
pavezar,  protect 
peaijar,  pay  toll 
pechar,  pay  a  fine 
pecolhar,  provide  with  legs 
pedasar,  fill  with  trifles 
pelhar,  flay 
penar,  punish 

>  See  also  the  formations  on  past 


nioneda,  money,  coin 
inonja,  nun 
morina,  mortality 
moscn,  fly 
Ditizn,  muse 
nebln,  fog,  mist 
nervi,  nerve 
ni,  nest 
niel,  enamel 
nosca,  beam 
nozel,  knot 
all,  oil 

oUratge,  insult,  outrage 
opresa,  oppression 
ordilha,  tool 

*organ,    organ.       Only    orgue< 

organum  is  foimd 
orgulh,  pride 
ortiga,  nettle 
osca,  dent,  breach 
ostal,  lodging,  inn 
oslatge,  lodging 
padoensa,  common  wood;  right 

of  cutting  or  gathering  wood 

paisel,  stake 
pala,  spade 
palha,  straw 
pasion,  passion 
pasta,  paste 
pastura,  pasture 
pati,  agreement 
patron,  standard,  model 

paves,  shield 
peatge,  toll 
pecha,  fine 
pecolh,  leg  (of  table) 
pedas,  trifle 
pelha,  skin 
pena,  punishment 

participles. 


FOKMATION   OF    VeRBS 


341 


penchenar,  comb 

penedensar,  do  penance;  absolve 

penhorar,  pledge 

pensionar,  pay,  give  salary  to 

perezar,  be  lazy 

pernar,  sharpen 

personatjar,  represent,  act  the 
part  of 

pesar,  break  to  pieces 

pestelar,  lock  in,  confine 

pilar,  pound,  crush 

plaisar,  supply  with  trees 

plancar,  cover  with  boards 

platonar,  provide  with  plates  of 
metal 

plechar,  bind  with  hoops 

plevinar  (se) ,  pledge  oneself 

plovinar,  rain  frequently 

poizonar,  give  potion  to,  intoxi- 
cate 

pomar,  put  forth  fruit  ( ?) 

pomelar,^  throw  apples  into  the 
air 

pontelar,^  support 

popar,  give  suck  to 

porcelar,  bring  forth  pigs 

pozar,  draw  (water) 

preizonar,  make  prisoner 

premiar,  reward 

prendar,^  receive  pledge  from 

prezar,  value,  prize 

prezurar,  press,  compress 

principar,  surpass,  excel 

profechar,  profit 

proverbiar,  rebuke 

puoiar,  raise,  excel 

querelhar  (se) ,  complain 


penche(n),  comb 
penedensa,  penance 
penhora,  pledge 
pension,  salary,  wage 
pereza,  laziness 
perna,  thin  board  ( ?) 
personatge,  character,  part 

pesa,  piece 
pestel,  pestle 
pila,  mortar 
plaisa,  hedge 
planca,  board 
platon,  plate  of  metal 

plecha,  hoop  ; 

plevina,  guaranty 
plovina,  frequent  rain 
poizon,  potion 

poma,  apple 
pomel,  small  apple 

pontel,  support 
popa,  pap 
parcel,  pig 
potz,  well 
preizon,  prison 
premi,  reward 

pretz,  value 

prezura,  pressure 

princep,  prince 

profech,  profit 

proverbi,  proverb,  parable 

puoi,  hill 

querelha,  complaint 


1  Pomelar  might  be  formed  on  the  simple  word  poma,  and  pontelar 
on  pont,  etc.,  giving  a  compound  suffix  -ELAR,  but  this  does  not  seem 
probable. 

-  Undoubtedly  formed  on  a  Prov.  prenda,  not  in  the  dictionaries, 
but  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Sp.  prenda. 


342 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


rainar,  be  angn-,  dispute 
ramar,  be  covered  with  leaves 
rancurar,  reproach 
randar,  cover  with  lace 
randonar,  run,  hurry 
razinar,  produce  grapes 
rengar,  arrange 
rimar,  rhyme 
romansar,    translate      into 

Romance 
sahatar,  beat,  strike^ 
sazonar,  ripen  in  season 
senar,  give  sense  to 
sentensar,  judge,  sentence 
sermonar,  discourse 
sinaUnfar,  elide 
sincopar,  syncopate 
sobransar,  dominate 
sofismar,  subtilize 
solar,  establish 
solasar,  rejoice,  divert 
soldadar,  pay 
solelhar,  shine,  be  in  sun 
somar,  sum  up 
tahornar,'^  strike 
tacar,  spot 

'Mlentar,  be  eager  for,  desire 
taidar,  sit  at  table 
tempestar,  ruin,  destroy 
testimoniar,  testify 
tetar,  suck 
tonsurar,  tonsure 
trabar,  attach,  bind 
trelhar,  spread  like  trellis 
trevar,  have  truce 
trosar,   pack   up;    break   to 

pieces 
valadar,  surround  with  drains 
verbar,  talk 


raina,  quarrel 
ram,  branch 
rnnctira,  bitterness 
randa,  end,  edge 
randon,  start,  effort 
razin,  grape 
renc,  line,  row 
rim,  rhyme 
roinana,  Romance 

sabat,  shoe 
sazon,  season 
sen,  sense 
sentensa,  sentence 
sermon,  speech 
sinalinfa,  elision 
sincopa,  syncope 
sobransa,  domination 
sofisma,  sophism 
sol,  ground 
solatz,  diversion 
soldada,  pay 
solelh,  sun 
som,  sum,  top 
tabor,  drum 
taca,  spot 
talen{t),  desire 
taula,  table 
tempest,  storm    ■ 
testimoni,  testimony 
tela,  nipple 
tonsura,  tonsure 
trau,  beam 
trelha,  vine 
treva,  truce 
trosa,  bundle;  piece 

valhat,  drain,  ditch 
verba,  word 


'  Only  in  one  example,  in  which  it  seems  to  mean  strike  (with  a 
shoe) .     Cf .  the  Fr.  neologism  sabotage. 

2  This  word  appears  to  be  formed  on  the  diminutive  taborin. 


Formation  of  yERBS  343 

vernisar,  varnish  vernitz,  varnish 

vezar,  accustom  vetz,  time,  custom 

vigorar,  give  vigor,  fortify  vigor,  vigor 

violar,  f  play  the  viohn  viola,  violin 

The  total  list  of  formations  on  all  other  kinds  of 
words  is  relatively  very  small  indeed.  There  are  some 
formations  on  adjectives,  but  -IR  seemed  to  be  a  much 
more  usual  suffix  for  these  words  to  take.  There  are 
also  some  formations  on  the  past  participles  of  simple 
verbs,  which  became  new  infinitives  by  adding  -AR,  but 
most  of  these  past  participles  had  become  used  as  nouns, 
which  makes  this  kind  of  formation  very  much  like  the 
first  and  most  usual  one. 

The  adjectival  formations  are  as  follows: 

aizinar,^  arrange  aizin,  comfortable 

aizivar,  approach  aiziu,  near,  ready 

azautar,  charm  azaut,  charming 

caninar,  become  angry  caniri,  doggish,  bad 

dezazautar,  dishke,  be  displeasing  dezazaut,  displeasing 

desleialar,  disgrace  desleial,  faithless,  inadequate 

egalar,  equal  egal,  equal 

enfrunar  (se),  stuff  oneself  enfrun,  greedy 

escamusar,    take    off    prominent  escarmis,  rough,  scaly 

parts,  scale^ 

estancar,  stanch  estanc,  stagnant 

falsar,  falsify,  counterfeit  fals,  false 

I  See  also  formations  on  nouns,  p.  333. 

-  The  meaning  is  doubtful,  but  judging  from  the  translations  given 
in  Mistral  of  escamusa,  this  is  the  meaning  which  also  belongs  to  the 
O.  Prov.  escamusar.  Escamus  appears  to  come  from  a  Lat.  squamosus, 
and  not  to  be  connected  with  camus  (or  gamus),  silly,  which  in  turn 
appears  to  be  different  from  the  Fr.  camus,  flat-nosed. 


fThe  Prov.  words  of  Lat.  origin  will  not  be  given  here,  as  the  -ar 
was  not  a  suffix  but  only  a  conjugation  endhig. 

More  or  less  doubtful  words  are  gorgolhonar  on  gorgolhon,  corn-worm, 
and  a  somewhat  obscure  word  gravaironar,  apparently  formed  on 
gravairon,  which,  from  its  formation,  would  seem  to  mean  a  sandy 
place,  but  leaves  the  derived  verb  obscure. 

For  malcorar  and  manohrar,  see  hybrids,  p.  582. 


344  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

felenar,^  bo  angry 

frevolar,  weaken  frevol,  weak 

gentilar,  please  gentil,  gentle  \ 

largar,  let  loose  hire,  free 

lasar,  tire  las,  tired 

mancar,  lack  mane,  crippled 

nualhar,  be  idle  nualh,  lazy 

mdhar,  annul  nulh,  null 

orrezar,^  soil  orre  (fem.  orreza) 

planar,  make  smooth  piari,  smooth,  level 

primar,  excel,  lead  prim,  first 

redonhar,  round  off  redon,  round 

safranar,  grow  yellow  safran,  saffron 

sanglenlar,  make  bloody  sanglen{t),  bloody 

segurar,  assure  segur,  sure 

sordejar,  decline,  degenerate  sordei,  sordid 

trefanar,  betray  trefan,  deceitful 

truandar,  ramble,  beg  truan{t)  rascally,  poor 

vojar,  empty  voi,  empty 

volatjar,\  flit  about  volaije,  flitting 

The  new  verbs  built  on  past  participles  derived  directly 
from  those  of  Latin  verbs  are  as  follows:  clucar,  cobertar, 
conduchar,  conversar,  farsar,  musar  (f),  ointar,  profechar, 
and  sofertar.     They  will  be  treated  individually. 

Clucar,  close  (the  eyes),  blink,  is  derived  from  the  past 
participle  clue,  shut,  closed,  of  a  verb  chare.  The  past 
participle  clue,  which  is  used  only  in  reference  to  the  eyes, 
is  given  in  Levy  as  well  as  in  Raynouard. 

i  Felen  with  the  meaning  of  "angry"  or  "cruel"  is  not  found. 
Felenar  is  probably  a  corruption  of  felonar,  formed  on  felon,  angry.  In 
many  words  the  o  had  disappeared,  as  in  felnes  beside  felones,  and  the  e 
may  be  due  to  an  incorrect  restoration  of  the  vowels,  possibly  assisted 
by  a  confusion  with  felen,  grandchild. 

2  The  precise  formation  of  this  verb  is  not  clear.  There  is  confusion 
in  several  of  the  words  derived  from  orre  <  horridus.  Orrezar  might 
come  from  horridare. 

t  Other  words  apparently  formed  on  Prov.  adjectives,  but  of  Lat. 
formation,  are:  escurar,  darken;  fermar,  fix,  attach;  and  pejorar,  become 
worse.  Piadar,  make  pious,  is  pecuHarly  formed,  the  adjective  "pious" 
being  in  Prov.  pios  and  not  piat,  which  would  give  the  form  we  find. 
Piadar  appears  to  be  due  to  a  confusion  between  pios  and  pta/os,  pitying. 


Formation  of  Verbs  345 

Cobertar,  to  cover,  built  on  the  past  participle  cobert  of 
the  verb  cobrir,  cover. 

Conduchar,  lead;  also  entertain  guests,  built  on  co7i- 
duch,  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  conduire,  to  lead. 
There  are  also  nouns  conduch  and  conducha. 

Conversar,  turn  around;  built  on  convers,  turned  around, 
coming  from  the  Latin  conversus.  A  noun  conversa  also  exists. 

Farsar,  to  stuff,  cram,  from  a  past  participle  fars, 
coming  from  the  Latin  farsus  of  the  verb  farcire,  which 
gave  far  sir  in  Provencal.  Thus  there  is  in  Provengal 
farsir,  from  the  Latin  verb  direct,  and  farsar,  formed  on 
the  derivative  of  its  past  participle.^ 

Musar,  to  gape  at  or  muse,  has  already  been  given 
under  formations  on  nouns,  where  it  probably  belongs. 
Korting,  however,  gives  it  also  under  morsus,^  the  past 
participle  of  mordere. 

Onchar  (ointar),  anoint,  from  onch  (oint),  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb  onher,  anoint. 

Profechar,  profit.  The  word  is  formed  on  yrofieg, 
from  profedus,  the  past  participle  of  proficere.  There 
is  no  word,  however,  in  Provengal  from  the  infinitive 
proficere.  Profieg  is  used,  not  as  a  past  participle,  but  as 
a  noun  meaning  "profit." 

Sofertar,\  to  suffer.  From  sofert,  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  sofrir,  suffer. 

There  are  also  a  very  few  words    formed  on  other 

parts  of  speech : 

avantar,  extol,  glorify  avanit),  before,  forward 

vironar,  go  around  viron,  around 

1  This  word  is,  therefore,  an  example  of  the  extension  of  the  suflSx 
-AR  in  place  of  -IR.  Farsar  might  represent  nothing  but  a  simple  sub- 
stitution of  -AR  for  -IR. 

2  No.  6,307. 


t  Opresar,  given  among  the  formations  on  nouns  may  belong  here. 
The  past  participle  of  opremer  appears  to  be  oprcmut,  however. 


346  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

-IR 

The  formation  of  verbs  in  -IR  differs  in  several  respects 
from  that  of  the  verbs  in  -AR.  There  is  not  a  very  large 
total  of  the  verbs  in  -IR  formed  in  Provencal  on  other 
words  without  any  prefix,  and  of  these  a  very  large  pro- 
portion is  formed  on  adjectives  instead  of  on  nouns. ^ 
There  is,  however,  a  very  much  larger  list  of  verbs  formed 
by  the  addition  of  a  prefix  such  as  A-,  EN-,  or  ES-  at  the 
same  time  that  the  termination  is  added ;2  and  of  these,  too, 
the  great  majority  of  the  simple  words  on  which  the  verb 
is  built  consists  of  adjectives.  Thus,  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  two  conjugations  as  to  the  word  at  the 
base  of  the  formation;  but  there  is  a  much  greater  differ- 
ence in  the  number  of  formations  by  the  addition  of  both 
})refix  and  infinitive  termination.  In  the  verbs  in  -AR, 
this  process  barely  exists,  and  is  seen  in  a  few  verbs  formed 
on  nouns;  for  the  verbs  in  -IR,  it  is  the  commonest  of 
all  formations. 

There  are  also  a  few  words  having  both  the  endings 
-AR  and  -IR,  belonging  largely  to  the  class  which  adds  a 
prefix  together  with  the  suffix.  This  appears  to  be  an 
extension  of  the  use  of  the  termination  -AR,  by  all  odds 
the  commonest  verbal  termination,  into  the  field  where 
-IR  was  originally  alone.  The  cases  of  this  kind  will  all 
be  pointed  out  below,  and  treated  individually. 

'  Another  difference  worthy  of  notice  lies  in  the  fact  that  most  of 
the  formations  in  -IR  are  intransitive  in  force,  whereas  those  in  -AR  are 
reguhirly  transitive,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  list  of  meanings  that  these 
have,  given  above.  -IR,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  gives  the  meaning 
of  "to  become"  to  the  adjective  to  which  it  is  added.  When  it  became 
necessary  to  give  transitive  force  to  an  adjective,  this  was  usuallj^  done 
by  adding  -AR  to  it,  but  at  the  same  time  using  one  of  the  verbal  pre- 
fixes.    Thus  wo  find  alargar,  alongar,  etc. 

2  For  words  of  this  kind  see  the  parasyntheta,  pp.  517-21,  below. 


Formation  of  Verbs  347 

The  termination  -IR  is  used  to  form  verbs  on  adjec- 
tives in  the  following  cases: 

blavir(f)  (no  example  given),  grow  pale  blau,  blue 

brunir,  brown,  darken  brun,  brown 

durir,  harden  dur,  hard 

eretgir,  become  heretical  eretge,  heretical 

escurir,  grow  dark  escur,  dark 

fermir,  fasten  ferm,  firm,  fast 

folir,  become  foolish  fol,  foolish 
folatir,^  be  wanton.     The  word  is 

of  doubtful  existence.     Folat  is 

not  found. 

franquir,  free  franc,  free 

frevolir,  weaken;  become  weak  frevol,  weak 

jovenir,  rejuvenate  joven,  young 

laidir,  insult  laid,  ugly 

magrir,  grow  thin  magre,  thin 

orgolhozir,  make  proud  orgolhos,  proud 

riquir,  enrich,  increase  ric,  rich 

rogir,  f  redden  rog,  red 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  list  that  there  are  two 
meanings  for  formations  of  this  kind:  (1)  active  and  (2) 
passive.  In  the  case  of  the  first,  the  meaning  is,  to  make 
a  thing  acquire  a  certain  quality,  as  in  jovenir,  make 
young;  according  to  the  second,  the  meaning  is,  to  acquire 
that  quality,  as  in  folir,  magrir,  etc.  The  latter  seems 
to  be  the  more  usual  kind  of  formation. 

The  few  formations  on  nouns  by  means  of  -IR  are  as 
follows : 

aizir,^  approach,  bring  near  aize,  proximity 

bailir,^  govern,  steer  baile,  baiUff 

1  The  word  occurs  only  once.  Possibly  it  should  be  foletir  and  the  a 
be  attributed  to  a  confusion  with  folastre. 

2  The  formation  of  both  of  these  words  is  more  or  less  doubtful. 
Although  aizir  does  really  appear  to  be  a  formation  on  aize  (see  Essain, 

.232),  bailir  is  probably  not  formed  on  baile,  but  baile  on  bailir,     Bailir 
appears  to  be  another    form  of  bailar Kbajulare. 

t  Another  possible  formation  is  esquivir,  to  avoid,  shun,  existing 
beside  esquiu,  but  the  adjective  was  probablj'^  derived  from  the  verb, 
which  is  of  Germ,  origin. 


348  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

bordir,^  tourney,  joust  bort,  tourney,  joust 

colorir,^  become  colored  color,  color 
confrairir,  unite  closely;  fraternize     confraire,  part^aer 

garentir,  guarantee,  pledge  garen{t),  guaranty 

golir,  swallow  up  gola,  throat 

maestrir,  teach  maeslre,  master 

nientir  (se),  be  destroyed  nien{t),  nothingness 

plomir,  fall  plo7n,  lead 

polverir,^  pulverize  polvera,  powder 

Formations  on  other  parts  of  speech  are  seen  in: 

avaniir,  advance  avan{t),  forward 

enantir,]  advance,  celebrate  enan{t),  forward 

COMPOUND    SUFFIXES 

Besides  the  simple  suffixes  -AR  and  -IR  with  their 
different  meanings  and  methods  in  forming  words,  there 
are  several  other  suffixes  of  a  compound  nature,  formed 
generally  by  adding  -ARE  to  some  noun  already  ending 
in  a  suffix.  Thus  -ACULARE  (>-ALHAR)  was  formed 
originally  by  adding  -ARE  to  nouns  ending  in  -AC(U)LUS ; 
but  as  there  were  a  good  many  of  these,  the  verbal  suffix 
was  taken  to  be  -ACULARE  instead  of  merely  -ARE,  and 
was  thenceforth  added  to  simple  nouns  to  form  new  verbs. 
-ALHAR< -ACULARE  is  a  typical  example  of  the  whole 
class  of  compound  suffixes.  Each  of  these  compound 
suffixes  will  be  treated  individually.  Most  of  them,  how- 
ever, give  no  very  well-defined  or  classifiable  meaning  to 
the  words  to  which  they  are  joined  other  than  that  of 
turning  them  into  verbs. 

1  This  word  is  not  entirely  clear,  however.  Beordar  exists  also  and 
seems  to  be  formed  on  heort.  In  O.  Fr.,  also,  there  are  many  forms  of  the 
word. 

2  Probably  the  formation  is  due  to  the  analogy  of  the  words  in  which 
-IR  was  added  to  adjectives  of  color,  as  brunir.     Colorar  is  also  found. 

'  Found  also  as  polverar  and  polverejar. 


t  As  was  the  case  with  -AR,  and  for  the  same  reason,  words  in  -IR 
of  Lat.  origin  will  not  be  given  here. 


Formation  of  Verbs  349 

-alhar,  -elhar,  -ilhar,  -olhar 

The  suffixes  -ALHAR,  -ELHAR,  -ILHAR,  and  -OLHAR 
will  be  treated  together,  as  were  the  nominal  forms 
-ALH,  -ELH,  -ILH,  and  -OLH,  from  -ACLUM,  ICLUM, 
and  -UCLUM.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  verbs 
were  not  formed  on  the  nouns  ending  in  these  suffixes. 
Had  they  been  so  formed,  there  would  be  no  need  of  con- 
sidering -ALHAR,  etc.,  as  compound  verbal  suffixes: 
the  formation  would  be  brought  about  by  adding  -AR, 
not  -ALHAR,  to  the  noun.  The  actual  formation  seems, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  be  quite  different.  Badalhar, 
for  example,  was  not  formed  on  badalh,  which  exists,^ 
but  on  badar,  gape,  open,  by  the  addition  of  -ALHAR 
(<-ACULARE)  to  the  stem.  Yet  this  does  not  exclude 
all  influence  of  the  noun  in  -ALH  on  the  verb,  and  indeed 
-ACULARE  must  have  been  originally  formed  by  the 
combination  of  -AC(U)LUM +-ARE  ;  but  being  very 
early  regarded  in  its  complete  form  as  a  new  verbal 
suffix,  it  came  to  be  substituted  for  the  ordinary  infinitive 
endings,-  with  a  slight  modification  in  meaning.  -ALHAR, 
as  in  badalhar  and  crizalhar,  seems  to  express  the  idea 
of  frequent  repetition.  -ELHAR  and  -ILHAR,  express- 
ing this  idea  also,  have  often  diminutive  force,  which  could 
have  originated  through  the  usual  meanings  of  -ELH  and 
-ILH,  and  then  spread  to  verbs  in  -ALHAR.  Sometimes, 
again,  this  group  of  suffixes  adds  little  change  to  a  verb, 

1  This  word  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  postverbal  formation  on  badalhar. 

-  -ALHAR  was  added  to  verb-stems,  such  successive  derivations 
as  batre,  batalh,  then  batalhar,  finally  leading  to  such  direct  formations 
as  badalhar  on  badar.  -ELHAR  was  apparently  added  also  to  verb- 
stems.  There  seems,  however,  to  have  been  a  good  deal  of  confusion 
between  the  suffixes  of  this  group.  They  have  to  some  extent  inter- 
changed their  meanings,  and  the  processes  used  in  the  formation  of 
the  verbs  of  this  group  have  likewise  become  somewhat  confused. 


350  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

showing,  as  in  the  ease  of  nominal  suffixes  originally 
diminutive,  how  eommon  the  suffix  had  become  in  the 
vulgar  language.^ 

A  circumstance  that  adds  some  confusion  to  the  verbs 
of  this  group  is  that  there  was  another  Latin  suffix  which 
might  give  the  same  results  in  certain  cases.  This  is 
-ILLARE  (found  in  a  few  words  in  Latin), ^  which  became 
very  common  in  French,  where  it  is  found  at  present 
under  the  form  -ELER,  and  forms  verbs  on  nouns  as  well 
as  on  verb-stems.  Now  this  suffix  would  become  -ELAR 
or  -ELHAR  in  Provengal,  having  therefore  the  same  form 
as  might  be  derived  from  -IC(U)LARE.  Its  traces 
are,  however,  few  in  Provengal,  though  some  apparently 
exist. 

-ALHAR  is  added  to  verb-stems  in : 

badalhar,  yawn  badar,  open,  gape 

crizalhar,  keep  crying,  bawl  cridar,  cry 

tornalhar,  f  whirl  around  tornar,  turn 

-ELHAR  is  added  to  verb-stems  in : 

destorbelhar,^  trouble,  torment  desiorbar,  disturb 

gabelhar,*  boast,  brag  gabar,  boast 

pendelhar,  hang  lightly  pendre,  hang 

plevelhar,'\'\  assure,  guarantee  (?)  plevir,  guaranty' 

1  Cooper,  243,  and  reference  there  to  Funck,  ALL.,  IV,  68. 

*  Such  words  as  cantillare,  vacillare,  etc. 

'  Cf.  also  estorbelhar  (representing  a  prefix-change?). 

*  Some  confusion  exists  between  -ELHAR  and  -EJAR,  studied 
farther  on.  Thus  we  find  gabelhar  and  gahejar  with  the  same  meaning, 
and  Levy  gives  esbaudelhar  =esbaudejar.  Cf.  also  sordelhar  mentioned 
in  note  f,  p.  351. 


t  For  such  words  as  batalhar,  fight,  escalhar,  scale  off,  and  gazalhar, 
assemble,  see  the  suffix  -AR,  as  these  words  are  formed  on  the  noun 
batalha,  escalh,  and  gazalha  by  means  of  this  sufBx  and  not  by  -ALHAR. 
Another  word,  coralhar,  is  obscure  in  meaning,  and  maj'  not  exist. 
See  Levy,  I,  363. 

ft  A  word  obscure  in  form  and  meaning  is  mercelhar. 


Formation  of  Verbs  351 

It  is  apparently  added  to  nouns  in : 

dentelhar,  take  by  the  teeth  dent,  tooth 

tore{i)lhar,  barricade,  bolt  tor,  tower 

and  to  an  adjective  in: 

rauguelhar ,]  choke  rave,  hoarse 

-ILHAR  is  added  to  verb-stems  in: 

esiendilhar,  stretch  out  estendre,  extend 

fendilhar,  crack,  chap  fendre,  spUt 

fozilhar,  dig  fozer,  iov  foire,  dig 

grondilJiar,  murmur  grondir,  murmur 

trauqinlhar,  pierce  traucar,  pierce 

It  is  apparently  added  to  nouns  in: 

crozilhar,  weave  into  a  cross  crotz,  cross 

grezilhar,^  hail  greza,  hail 

maestrilhar,  teach  maestre,  master 

ranquilhar,'^]^,  grieve,  lament  ranc,  rancid 

-OLHAR  is  found  in: 

janglolhar,]]]  slander,  rail  at  janglar,  slander 

1  Like  this  -woYdishrezilhar ,  to  break  (like  wood),  from  hrezilh,  brazil- 
wood, the  suffix  being  -AR,  therefore,  instead  of  -ILHAR.  Grezilhar  itself 
is  probably  formed  in  the  same  way,  on  *ffre2iZ/(,  which,  though  not  found, 
probably  existed.     Cf.  the  Fr.  gresil. 

2  For  a  discussion  of  this  word  see  ranquejar,  given  under  -EJAR, 
p.  361  below,  and  the  note  on  it. 


t  Another  word  apparently  formed  in  the  same  way  is  sordelhar, 
decline,  but  it  is  probably  the  same  as  sordejar,  from  sordei  <  sordidus. 

tt  Other  words  ending  in  -ILHAR  but  not  formed  by  means  of  this  suffix 
are  cavilhar,  estrilhar,  and  ponsilhar.  Cavilhar  may  have  been  formed  by 
attaching  -AR  to  cavilha  (see  -AR  above),  but  it  more  probably  came 
direct  from  the  hat.  cavillari.  Estrilhar,  meaning  "stretch  oneself "(?) 
(or  setriller,  curry  oneself,  as  Meyer  translates  it  in  the  vocabulary  to 
Flamenca),  has  evidently  the  same  source  seen  in  s'etriUer,  namely 
strigulare,  formed  on  strigula.  The  e  in  the  Mod.  Prov.  esterilha,  like- 
wise in  the  Flamenca  passage,  must  have  come  through  some  analogy. 
Ponsilhar,  support,  appears  to  have  come  from  pimctillare,  perhaps 
influenced  by  ponsel,  small  bridge. 

ttJA  somewhat  obscure  word  is  tantolhar,  soil,  cover  with  dirt.     It 
is  found  in  O.  Fr.  as  tantouiller  and  in  Mod.  Prov.  as  tantoulha. 


352  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

-ASAR 

In  the  "Traite  de  la  formation  de  la  langue  frangaise," 
or  Introduction  to  the  dictionary  of  Hatzfeld  and  Darmes- 
teter/  -ASSER  is  given  under  the  heading  of  "French 
suffix."  This  classification  is  correct  in  the  sense  that 
-ERIE,  -ERON,  etc.,  are  French  suffixes — they  are  not 
simple  Latin  suffixes — but  such  a  suffix  as  -ERIE,  corre- 
sponding forms  of  which  are  found  in  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Provencal,  cannot  be  treated  as  belonging  peculiarly  to 
any  one  Romance  language.  This  is  the  case  with  many 
of  these  double  suffixes,  and  is  certainly  true  of  -ASAR 
(or  -ASSER).  It  is  derived  from  a  Latin  *-ACEARE  in 
much  the  same  way  that  -ALHAR  was  derived  from 
-ACULARE— by  adding  -ARE  to  nouns  in  -ACEU(M) 
originally — and  then  was  regarded  in  its  complete  form 
as  a  new  verbal  suffix  to  be  added  to  verb-stems,  the 
intermediate  step  having  been  forgotten.  Thus  we 
have  crehasar,  for  example.  Crebasa  exists  in  Provencal, 
and  crevasse  in  French,  coming  from  *crepacea;^  but  as 
crehasar  is  found  in  Provencal,  crevasser  in  French,  and 
crepacciare^  in  Italian,  it  seems  natural  to  suppose  that 
-ACEARE  was  formed  in  Latin,  rather  than  that  exactly 
the  same  process  should  be  followed  independently  in  each 
of  these  languages.     Now  *crepaceare  must  have  existed 

I  Vol.  I,  p.  71  of  Introduction. 

=  That  is,  the  stem  of  crepare  +-ACEA.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  crepacea 
is  not  found,  and  crebasa  may  have  been  formed  by  adding  the  Prov. 
suSix  -ASA  (<-ACEA)  to  the  Prov.  verb  crebar.  See  crebas  under  the 
suffix  -AS,  p.  141  above. 

3  Meyer-Liibke  (II,  659)  gives  this  word  as  the  only  example  in 
which  -ACEUS  gives  cc  in  It.,  all  the  other  words  giving  zz.  These 
words  giving  zz  may,  however,  represent  -ATIARE  ( =-ATIO-|— ARE), 
or,  if  -ACEUS  ever  gave  -AZZO,  as  Meyer-Liibke  states,  they  would  be 
regularly  descended  from  -ACEARE,  and  crepacciare  would  still  be 
irregular.  -ACCIO  and  not  -AZZO  appears,  nevertheless,  to  be  the 
usual  phonetic  development  of  -ACEUS  in  It. 


Formation  of  Verbs  353 

beside  crepare,  or  crebasar  beside  crebar,  and  -ASAR  had 
therefore  the  appearance  of  being  in  itself  a  verbal  suffix 
added  to  stems  of  verbs  in  -ar.  Hence  the  new  Pro- 
vencal formations  on  verb-stems: 

espinasar,^  crown  or  cover  with      espinar,  cover  with  thorns,  prick 

thorns 
tirasar,^  twitch,  draw  tirar,  draw 

A  word  formed  on  a  noun  is: 
reumasar,^\  catch  cold  reuma,  cold 

This  kind  of  formation  has  already  been  seen  in 
-ALHAR.  It  may  have  been  aided  by  the  frequent 
existence  of  simple  nouns  to  which  the  compound  suffix 
could  be  added,  beside  the  verb-stems.  Thus,  for  example, 
espina  and  espinar. 

From  the  few  examples,  -ASAR  seems  to  have 
contributed  little  individual  meaning,  and  has  just  about 
the  force  of  -AR.  Had  -AR  been  added  separately, 
how^ever,  to  nouns  in  -AS,  some  more  distinct  trace  of 
the  augmentative  meaning  of  -ACEUM  Avould  probably 
be  observable. 

-AISER,    -EISER,    -OISER 

Several  verbs  are  found  in  Provengal  with  the  ending 
-EISER,  also  a  few  in  -AISER  and  -OISER,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  of  these  forms  was  used  as  a  suffix 

1  Possibly  formed  on  the  noun  espina,  thorn.  Espinasa,  place  grown 
with  thorns,  also  exists,  but  its  meaning  makes  it  improbable  as  a  base- 
word  for  espinasar. 

2  Cf .  the  corresponding  Fr.  word  tirailler,  formed  bj'  means  of 
-ACULARE. 


t  Another  word  which  at  first  sight  seems  to  belong  here  is  pedasar, 
patch,  mend.  It  is  formed,  however,  on  pedas,  trifle,  by  means  of  the 
simple  verbal  ending  -AR.  Still  another  word  in  -ASAR  is  estrasar,  for 
which  see  the  parasyntheta,  p.  51.3. 


354  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

to  form  new  words.  These  forms  are  not  at  all  common  in 
Provencal,  and  the  few  words  found  appear  to  have  lost 
all  of  the  original  force  of  the  suffix,  or  at  least  that  which 
it  had  in  many  Latin  verbs — of  beginning  an  action. 
They  have  exactly  the  same  meaning  as  the  corresponding 
verbs  in  -ii\  this  weakening  of  the  force  of  the  suffix 
appearing  to  go  back  to  Late  Latin  times.  Thus  in 
French  the  -iss-  of  the  verbs  in  -ir  has  come  to  be  nothing 
but  an  inflectional  ending. 

Iraiser  appears  to  be  the  only  form  in  -AISER  in 
Provengal,  from  irascere  for  irasci. 

In  -EISER  we  find  langueiser  from  languescere;  par- 
eiser  and  despareiser  from  *parescere  and  *disparescere, 
which  are  not  found,  but  to  whose  existence  the  forms 
in  all  the  Romance  languages  point;  espereiser,  awake, 
which  Stichel  derives  from  *expergiscere  for  expergisci; 
and  perhaps  a  verb  escarneiser,  existing  beside  escarnir. 

In  -OISER  is  found  conoiser  from  cogrioscere. 

Thus  there  seem  to  be  no  Provengal  formations  with 
these  suffixes. 

-IGAR,    -EGAR 

The  Provengal  suffix  -IGAR  or  -EGAR  is  derived  from 
a  Latin  -ICARE,  probably  formed  originally  by  adding 
-ARE  to  adjectives  ending  in  -ICUS  or  to  nouns  whose 
stems  ended  in  -IC,  as  nutrix  (nutricis),  for  example.  But 
like  -ALHAR,  -ASAR,  and  the  other  compound  suffixes, 
-ICARE  was  soon  regarded  as  a  whole — a  new  simple 
verbal  suffix  to  be  added  to  verb-stems,  nutricare  possibly 
being  supposed  to  be  formed  on  nutrire.  Yet  -ICARE 
in  such  words  as  nutricare  did  not  ordinarily  give  either 
-EGAR  or  -IGAR,  as  the  intertonic  vowel  regularly 
disappeared    in    all    popular   words   very  early.     This  is 


Formation  of  Verbs  355 

seen  in  most  of  the  words  derived  from  -ICARE,  in  which 
a  number  of  forms  are  found,  depending  on  the  time  of 
the  disappearance  of  the  vowel,  or,  in  other  words,  on 
whether  it  remained  long  enough  to  allow  the  consonant 
to  voice. ^  Thus  we  find  so  many  different  results  from 
this  suffix  that  the  idea  of  a  common  origin,  or  even  of  the 
existence  of  a  suffix  at  all  in  these  words,  must  have  soon 
become  totally  effaced.  Yet  long  before  this,  the  idea 
of  the  existence  of  a  suffix  must  have  given  way  to  a  great 
extent,  for  had  the  suffix  been  clearly  felt  as  such,  the  inter- 
tonic  vowel  would  have  remained  as  it  remains  in  the 
suffixes  -ADOR,  -AMEN,  -ADURA;  -EMEN,  -EDOR, 
-EDURA,  etc.  The  words  ending  in  -ICARE  were 
exceedingly  common  in  popular  Latin,  as  the  Romance 
languages  show,  and  the  suffix  had  no  clearly  defined 
force,  nutrire  and  nutricare  meaning  the  same  thing. 
Though  the  -ICARE  may  have  had  its  starting-point  in 
adjectives  in  -ICUS,  or  in  noun-stems  in  -IC,  when  it 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  suffix  -ICARE  to  be  added  to 
verb-stems,  it  seems  frequently  to  have  been  substituted 
for  -IRE  or  -ARE,  simply  on  account  of  the  popular 
tendency  toward  greater  length  in  words.  There  having 
been  no  real  difference  in  meaning  from  -ARE,  finally 
only  a  vague  idea  of  the  suffix  -ICARE  may  have  been 
retained,  which  would  account  for  the  disappearance  of 
the  intertonic  vowel.  As  words  of  this  kind  have  no 
one  Provengal  form,  and  as  they  were  beyond  doubt  Latin 
formations,  they  need  not  be  given  here. 

There  are,  however,  several  words  in  Provencal  with 
the  endings  -EGAR  and  -IGAR,  thus  showing  the  reten- 
tion of  the  intertonic  vowel,  and  they  may  be  explained  in 
two  ways.     They  may  have  been  learned  words  of  Latin 

'  Thus,  for  example  cargarKcarricare,  cavalgarKcahallicare,  etc. 


356  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

formation,  or  they  may  have  been  Provon^-al  imitations  of 
sucli  words.  Nutricare  existed  in  Latin  beside  nutrire; 
and  it  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  the  analogical  forma- 
tion *putricare  beside  putrire.  This  form  is  made  more 
probable  by  the  existence  of  a  form  poiregos,^  rotten,  in 
Provengal,  apparently  derived  from  *putricosus.  Putri- 
care  may  have  given  rise  to  *petricare,  no  derivative  of 
which  is  found  in  Old  Provengal,  Ijut  whose  existence  is 
made  probable  by  the  Modern  Provengal  word  peirega,^ 
to  stone,  and  the  Spanish  word  pedregoso  from  *petricosus. 
Peiregar  seems  not  to  be  found  in  Provencal,  but  this 
word  is  found  joined  to  the  prefix  A-  in  apeiregar,^  stone. 
Two  words  of  somewhat  similar  formation,  appar- 
ently, are: 

afamegar,  famish 
amolegar,  soften 

Afamegar^  is  probably  formed  on  famejar,  hunger,  with 
the  substitution  of  -EGAR  for  -EJAR,  which  is  not  un- 
usual. This  is  also  found  in  enmalegar  for  enmalejar,^ 
and  possibly  in  espezegar^  from  expeditare  with  a  substi- 
tution of  -ICARE  for  -ITARE.  Amolegar'^  seems  to 
represent  a  *moUicare  formed  on  tnollis  or  on  moUire 
-|-the  prefix  A-,  due  to  the  analogy  of  amolir,  a  real  para- 
syntheton  therefore.  Then  are  found  other  words  of  this 
kind  having  suffix  and  prefix: 

dementegar,  forget  nien{t),  mind 

espesegar,  break  to  pieces  pesa,  piece 

1  See  p.  329,  n.  t  above.  -  See  Mistral's  dictionary. 

3  Probably  peiregar  and  poiregar  both  existed,  though  only  poiregar 
is  found.  -EGAR  has  been  consistently  used  in  these  words,  though 
-IGAR  is  found  also.  Nutricare  formed  on  nutrix  has  a  long  i  and  we 
should  expect  -IGAR  from  this  starting-point.  -EGAR,  nevertheless, 
seems  rather  commoner. 

*  See  parasyntheta,  p.  523.  ^  Parasyntheta,  p.  522. 

« This  should  be  distinguished  from  espesegar,  given  in  the  list. 


Formation  of  Verbs  357 

There  appear  to  be  only  three  formations  without 
prefixes,  one  of  these  words  (lenegar)  being  formed  on 
an  adjective: 

leisegar  (?),  give  judgment  leis,  law 

lenegar,  slip,  slide  len,  smooth 

rosegar,^'\  thrash  rosa,  nag 

-EJAR 

The  Provencal  suffix  -EJAR  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
verbal  ending  -t^etv  through  the  popular  Latin  form 
-IDIARE.  These  verbs  in  -EJAR  differ  little  in  meaning 
from  the  corresponding  ones  in  -AR,  and  it  appears  prob- 
able that  during  the  Christian  period,  when  this  suffix 
was  introduced  into  Latin,  it  was  often  substituted  for 
the  regular  -ARE  in  verbs  already  formed,  and  took  its 
place  in  many  new  formations  in  which  -ARE  might  be 
expected.  The  force  of  the  suffix  seems  to  be  exactly 
the  same  as  that  of  -AR,  and,  like  -AR,  it  is  added  both 
to  nouns  and  to  adjectives,  but  very  much  more  frequently 
to  nouns. 

1  This  word  may  be  compared  with  the  Fr.  rosser,  which  has  the 
same  meaning.  According  to  the  Darmesteter-Hatzfeld  dictionary, 
rosser  is  derived  from  rosse,  nag.  The  force  of  the  verbal  suffix  here  is 
apparently  that  of  "treat  like,"  the  verb  meaning  "to  treat  like  a  horse," 
i.e.,  to  beat.  This  meaning  is  occasionally  found  among  the  verbs  in 
the  Fr.  -ER  and  the  Prov.  -AR.  Korting  (No.  8,215)  and  Dicz, 
(p.  672)  derive  rosser  from  ruptiare,  but  this  would  not  account  for  the 
Prov.  word.  The  Fr.  and  Prov.  words  seem  to  be  based  on  the  same 
word  (rosse,  rosa),  but  the  Prov.  word  has  -ICARE  instead  of  -ARE. 
Appel,  in  the  vocabulary  to  his  Chrestomathy,  translates  rosegar  by 
" schleifen,"  " ziehen,"  but  the  meaning  of  the  word  appears  to  be  "to 
beat."  Confusion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  is  another  word  rosegar 
(or  rozegar),  meaning  to  gnaw,  nibble,  found  in  It.  as  rosicare,  and 
probably  derived  from  a  Lat.  *rosicare  (Korting,  No.  8,149). 


t  Another  word  of  Lat.  origin  ending  in  -EGAR  is  eisigar,  become 
dry,  from  exsiccare.  An  obscure  word,  both  in  form  and  in  meaning,  is 
garlegar. 


358 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


The  words  formed  on  nouns  follow 


airejar,  to  air,  ventilate 
amorejar  [se),  fall  in  love  with 
arquejar,  bend  oneself  like  a 

bow 
bailejar,  govern 
bandejar,  wave 
barrejar,  rob,  plunder 
beluguejar,  flash,  sparkle 
bordejar,  joust 
bretonejar,  stammer 
cambrejar,  go  to  stool 
carpentejar,^  do  carpentry 
carrasejar,  float,  cause  to  float 
causejar,  trample  on,  destroy^ 
clasejar,  ring  a  bell 
clerguejar,  harangue 
coladejar,  strike 
colbejar,  strike 
cordejar,'^  pull  at  cord,  strike  with 

cord  ( ?) 
cortejar,  visit  court,  pay  court 
domnejar,  pay  court 
espondejar,  embroider 
fadejar,  act  foolishly 
famejar,  to  hunger 
fanguejar,  remove  mud 
fatonejar,  joke  ( ?),  speak  foolishly 
faulejar,  tell  stories 
favorejar,  favor 
febrejar,  have  a  fever;  rave 


air,  air 
amor,  love 
arc,  bow 

baile,  bailiff,  steward 

banda,  band,  strip 

barra,  toll 

beluga,  flash 

bort,  joust 

Breton,  native  of  Brittany 

cambra,  privy 

carras,-  pile  of  wood 
causa,  stocking 
clas,  ringing,  peal 
clerc,  clerk 
colada,  blow 
colbe,  blow 
corda,  cord 

cort,  court 
dornna,  lady 
esponda,  edge 
fat,  fool 
/a?n,  hunger 
fa7ic,  mud 
/a^oM,  (?) 
faula,  tale,  fable 
/az)or,  favor 
febre,  fever 


»  No  simple  word  is  found  in  Prov.,  but  corresponding  forms  are 
seen  elsewhere,  as  in  the  O.  Fr.  charpent,  wagon  (not  the  modern  char- 
pente,  which  is  probably  a  postverbal  formation).  Charpent,  etc., 
come  from  the  Lat.  carpentum,  coach,  from  which  was  derived  car- 
pentarius  (Prov.  carpentier).  Carpen{t)  probably  existed  in  Prov.  and 
gave  rise  to  carpentejar. 

2  Mistral  has  carras,  raft.  Probably  the  O.  Prov.  form  had  such 
meaning  also,  hence  the  meaning  found  in  the  verb. 

3  Apparently  by  stepping  on  a  thing. 

*  The  precise  meaning  is  somewhat  obscure.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
word,  see  Levy,  I,  367. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


359 


felnejar,^  commit  a  felony 
femejar,'^  go  to  stool 
festejar,  celebrate 
flamejar,  sparkle 
fondejar,  use  a  sling 
formiguejar,  swarm,  itch 
forrejar,  forage,  pillage 
frachurejar,  suffer  want 
frenejar,  chain,  link,  be  linked 
frontejar,  border  on,  adjoin 
fumejar,  smoke 
fustejar,  cut  wood 
gabejar,-  chatter,  rail  at,  ridicule 
gardejar,  look  at 
gardiejar,  protect  fields 
garentejar,  guarantee 
gerbejar,  cut  grass 
girbaudonejar,  debauch 
glanejar,  collect  acorns 
gloriejar,  boast 
glotonejar,  be  a  glutton 
golejar,  long  for,  desire 
gotejar,  distil 
grailejar,  blow  trumpet 
guerrejar,  make  war 
joglarejar,  be  a  minstrel 
lagreviejar,  weep 
maestrejar,  repress 
manejar,    touch    with    the    hand, 

wield 
marejar,  navigate,  sail 
rnatrasejar,  slaughter 
mercejar,  implore  mercy 
mosquejar,  clear  of  flies 
mulejar,  ride  a  mule 
naulejar,  charter  a  boat 
nertejar,  gather  myrtles 


felnia,  felony 
f€7n,  manure 
festa,  feast 
flania,  flame 
fonda,  shng 
formiga,  ant 
forre,  forage 
frachura,  want 
fren,  rein 
fron{t),  front 
fum,  smoke 
fuM,  wood 
gab,  boast 
garda,  guard 
gardia,  watchman 
garen{t),  guaranty 
gerba,  grass 
girbaudon,  rascal 
glan,  acorn 
gloria,  glory,  fame 
gloton,  glutton 
gola,  gluttony^ 
gota,  drop 
graile,  trumpet 
guerra,  war 
joglar,  minstrel 
lagrema,  tear 
maestre,  master 
man,  hand 

mar,  sea 

matras,  projectile 

merce,  mercy 

mosca,  fly 

mul,  mule 

naxde,  chartering  of  a  boat 

nerta,  myrtle 


1  This  word  is  not  perfectly  clear  in  form.     Felniar  is  also  found, 
and  looks  like  felnia  +-AR. 

2  Femorejar  is  also  found.     For  the  form  femora,  see  the  discussion  of 
fetnoras,  under  the  suffix  -AS,  p.  141,  n.  t  above. 

'Primitive  meaning  is  "throat." 


360 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


public 


nosejar,  marry 
obrejar(?),  be  at  work 
oclejar,  wink  (for  olhejar  ?) 
ombrejar,  give  shade 
ondejar,  rise  in  waves 
onsejar,  draw  in  the  toes 
ostejar,  make  war 
pairejar,  act    as    or    resemble 

father 
panejar,  wave 
paraigejar,  be  of  value 
parcenejar,^  participate,  share 
personejar,  associate  with 
pesejar,  break  to  bits 
petejar,  crackle 
plaidejar,  dispute,  contest 
plasejar,    wander    about 

places 
polverejar,  pulverize 
putanejar,  fornicate 
sagramentejar,  blaspheme 
salmejar,  sing  psalms 
senhorejar,  command 
setejar,  be  thirsty 
sobresenhorejar,  rule  over 
ta{m)borejar,  play  the  drum 
taulejar,  play  castanets 
tornejar,  tourney 
valadejar,  make  a  ditch 

The  verbs  in  -EJAR  which  are  built  on  adjectives  are 
as  follows: 

amarejar,  be   bitter;      also   make     amar,  bitter 

bitter  ( ?) 
balbejar,  stammer 
blanquejar,  be  or  become  white 
blavejar,  become  blue 
cabalejar,  be  excellent 
clarejar,  shine 
clopejar,  limp 


nosas,  wedding 

obra,  work 

olh,  eye 

ombra,  shade 

onda,  wave 

onsa,  finger-  (or  toe-?)  joint 

osia,  army 

paire,  father 

pnn,  flap 

paratge,  birth,  rank 
parcela,  share 
persona,  person 
pesa,  bit 
pet,  fart 
plaid,  lawsuit 
plasa,  public  square 

polvera,  powder 
putana,  prostitute 
sagramen{l),  oath 
salme,  psalm 
senhor,  lord 
set,  thirst 

sobresenhor,  overlord 
taini)bor,  drum 
taula{-eta),  castanet 
torn,  turn 
valat,  ditch 


balb,  stammering 
blanc,  white 
blau,  blue 
cabal,  excellent 
clar,  clear 
clop,  lame 


1  The  n  instead  of  /  occurs  in  other  words  also,  as  parcenier  beside 
parcelier,  parcenaria,  etc. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


361 


cohejar,^  covet,  long  for 
contrariejar ,  be  opposed  to 
egalejar,  equalize 
endignejar,  scorn 
fadejar,  act  foolishlj' 
falsejar,  be  false,  deceive 
falbejar,  grow  pale 
fere  jar  ( /),  become  frightened 
flaquejar,  become  weak 
folejar,  do  foolish  things 
foralejar,  treat  unlawfully 
laidejar,  insult,  offend  ( ?) 
largiiejar,  make  largesses 
malaudejar,  be  or  become  ill 
malejar,  be  angry,  rage 
menudejar,    cut    into    small 

pieces 
nesciejar,  be  silly 
nedejar,'^  clean,  purify 
noblejar,  shine,  be  resplendent 
orrejar,^  soil 

peguejar,  be  silly,  wander 
plazentejar,  be  agreeable 
ranquejar,  limp* 
rogejar,  redden 
vanejar,  trifle,  joke 


cobe,  greedy,  covetous 

contrnri,  opposite 

egal,  equal 

endigne,  unworthj- 

fat,  foolish,  absurd 

fals,  false 

falb,  pale 

fer,  wild,  untamed 

fine,  weak 

fol,  foolish 

foral,  outer,  external 

laid,  ugly 

hire,  liberal 

malaut,  ill 

mal,  angry 

menitt,  small 

nesci,  silly,  ignorant 
net,  clean 
noble,  noble 
orre,  dirty 
pec,  silly 

plazen{t),  agreeable 
ranc,  crippled 
rog,  red 
van,  vain 


1  There  is  also  another  word,  cobezejar,  which  appears  to  be  formed 
on  the  feminine  of  cobe — cobeza  (<.cupida),  rather  than  on  cobes,  which 
is  found  in  the  nominative  form,  or  on  the  noun  cobezeza,  on  which  is 
formed  the  adjective  cobezezos.  Cobezeza  would  not  give  the  proper 
form  or  meaning  to  the  verb,  however. 

-  For  another  form  of  this  verb  (denejar) ,  see  parasyntheta,  p.  522,  n.  f. 

3  There  is  also  a  form  ordejar,  which  appears  to  come  from  a  Lat. 
*horr{i)  didiare.  The  adjective  horridus  had  a  difTerent  development 
from  this  verb  derived  from  it.  In  the  adjective  the  i  persisted,  and  the 
word  became  orre,  with  a  feminine  orreza. 

*  There  is  also  a  verb  ranquejar,  meaning  "to  mutter,  to  be  angry" 
(also  "to  ruminate"?),  whose  base  seems  different.  The  word  given  in 
the  Hst  above  is  based  on  an  adjective  of  Germ,  origin,  but  there  is 
another  adjective  having  the  same  form  (ranc),  and  yet  apparently  of 
the  same  origin  as  the  Fr.  ranee,  rancid  (<.rancidus).  This  second 
ranquejar,  like  ranquilhar,  listed  under  -ALHAR,  p.  351,  seems  to  be 
derived  from  this  adjective  ranc. 


362  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

verdejar,  become  green  vert,  green 

vermelhejar,  become  pink  vennelh,  pink 

vilanejar,  become  coarse  vilan,  coarse 

On  another  part  of  speech — an  adverb — is; 

sovendejar,  mention  often  novenit),  often 

There  are  also  a  few  words  that  are  not  formed  on  any 
one  simple  word,  but  which  seem  rather  to  be  due  to  a 
substitution  of  the  suffix  -EJAR  for  some  other  endings. 
Such  words  are: 

dnmnejar,  damage,  instead  of 
damnar 

fremejar,  tremble,  instead  oifremir 

mantenejar,  keep,  maintain,  in- 
stead of  mantener 

oprimejar,  press  down,  instead  of 
oprimir 

trepejar^,  stamp,  instead  of  trepar 

vaguejar,  f  wander,  instead  of  vagar 

1  There  is  also  a  verb  estrepejar,  to  tear  out,  in  appearance  the  pre- 
fix 'ES-+trepejar,  but  probably  of  different  origin.  It  seems  to  come 
from  exstirpare.  If  so,  the  ending  -EJAR  may  be  due  to  the  influence 
of  trepejar,  stamp. 


t  Other  words  in  -EJAR  of  more  or  less  obscure  formation  are : 
avoquejar,  femorejar,  mercenejar,  palotejar,  papiejar,  pelejar,  poblejar,  and 
ponsejar. 

Avoquejar,  act  as  lawyer,  appears  to  be  a  shortened  form  of  *avoca- 
dejar,  formed  on  avocat,  lawyer.  The  shortening  may  have  been  helped 
by  association  with  avocar,  invoke. 

Femorejar,  clear  away  manure,  seems  to  have  been  formed  on 
*femor.     For  this  word  see  femoras  under  the  suffix  -AS,  p.  141,  n.  t- 

Mercenejar,  have  pity  on,  is  formed  on  the  stem  seen  in  mercenier< 
mercenarius. 

Palotejar,  skirmish  along  the  palisades  protecting  a  town,  is  un- 
doubtedly formed  on  *palol,  a  diminutive  of  pal,  stake.  Cf.  the  Fr. 
palot. 

Papiejar,  wander  back  and  forth,  is  doubtful  in  form.  One  com- 
mentator suggests  a  correction  to  patejar.  Mistral,  however,  has  a  form 
pepieja,  meaning  "act  foolishly,"  which  meaning  would  fit  the  passage 
in  which  papiejar  is  found.     The  origin  of  the  verb  seems  obscure. 

Pelejar,  dishonor  a  woman,  seems  to  be  of  the  same  origin  as  the 
Sp.  pelear,  fight.     Korting  (No.  6789)  and  Diez,  p.  475,  suggest  a  Gr. 


Formation  of  Verbs  363 

-EziR,  (-zir) 

The  Provengal  suffix  -EZIR,  -ZIR,  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  treat,  as  its  source  itself, is  not  perfectly  clear. 
The  earliest  theory,  that  of  Die?,^  who  derived  it  from 
-ESCERE,  is  clearly  impossible  on  account  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  sc  into  z,  which  it  would  be  necessary  to 
assume  only  for  words  of  this  class,  and  which  elsewhere 
becomes  s,  as  in  the  regular  development  of  -ESCERE 
into  -EISER.2  A  more  plausible  theory  is  the  one  advoc- 
ated by  Meyer-Liibke  in  his  Grammar,'^  which  accounts 
for  -EZIR  by  a  few  verbs  ending  in  -IDIRE,  of  which 
tepidire  is  a  type.  Tepidire,  says  Meyer-Liibke,  would 
give  in  Provengal  tebezir:  which,  existing  beside  tebe  from 
tepidus,  gave  rise  to  a  belief  in  a  suffix  -EZIR  added  to 
adjectives  to  form  new  verbs.  Yet  there  are  several' 
difficulties  with  this  hypothesis.  In  the  first  place,  it 
accounts  for  the  French  words  in  -CIR  by  a  different 
process  from  the  one  employed  for  Provengal.  But  a  more 
serious  objection  is  that,  as  Thomas  shows,  d  became  z 
only  in  certain  dialects,  whereas  the  ending  -EZIR  is  com- 
mon all  over  the  Provengal  territory.^  Thomas  also  shows 
that  in  a  text  filled  with  verbs  ending  in  -EZIR  (Girart 

■  Grammaire  des  langues  romanes,  II,  374. 

-  The  inceptive  meaning  found  in   a   number  of   these  words  gave 
a  very  good  basis  for  this  supposition. 

3 II,  666.  1  Essais,  284. 


jraAaieii-  as  source,  and  Caix  suggests  peKpilus,  hair.  PclKpeliis, 
skin,  has  also  been  suggested  as  the  base-word  (Stud.  Rom.,  VIII,  377). 
Pel,  besides  skin,  means  scrotum,  and  the  envelope  containing  the 
embryo.  This,  therefore,  is  surely  the  source  of  the  Sp.  and  Prov. 
words.  Pelejarse  has  the  meaning  of  "to  fight,"  which  the  Sp.  word 
possesses. 

Poblejar,  proclaim,  seems  to  come  from  publicare,  which  would 
regularly  give  poblegar.  Pohligar  is,  indeed,  found.  It  may  have  become 
poblejar  through  being  supposed  to  have  been  formed  on  poble,  people. 

Ponsejar,  quarrel  over  trifles,  is  obscure. 


364  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

de  Rossilhon)  we  find  a  verb  encobeir  from  mcupidire 
showing  the  other  development  of  <I — its  disappearance. 
It  is  extremely  unlikely,  then,  that  -EZIR  can  come  about 
as  Meyer-Liibke  suggests,  and  its  source  has  to  be  sought 
elsewhere.  The  most  plausible  theory,  perhaps,  is  found 
in  the  introduction  to  the  Dictionnaire  General^  of  Darmes- 
teter  and  Hatzfeld,  where  a  suffix  -ICIRE  is  assumed  to 
have  existed  in  Vulgar  Latin  beside  -ICARE.  Such  a 
suffix  would  account  for  the  forms  found  in  both  Provengal 
and  French.  The  few  words  found  in  French  end  in 
-CIR,2  thus  showing  the  disappearance  of  the  intertonic 
vowel,  the  first  i  of  -ICTRE,  just  as  this  vowel  disappears 
in  the  words  having  the  ending  -ICARE.  Most  of  the 
Provencal  words,  on  the  other  hand,  have  the  ending 
-EZIR,  in  which  the  intertonic  vowel  is  retained, 
though  the  ending  -ZIR  is  found  in  a  few  words.  The 
history  of  the  suffix  seems  to  have  been  as  follows:  In 
Latin,  words  in  -IC-IRE  were  formed  beside  those  in 
-IC-ARE,  probably  on  the  analogy  of  the  simple  verbal 
endings  -ARE  and  -IRE.  In  these  words,  the  intertonic 
vowel  naturally  disappeared,  leaving  the  suffix  -ZIR, 
as  seen  in  durzir  and  clarzir.  Yet  the  majority  of  words 
in  Provengal  show  the  ending  -EZIR  rather  than  -ZIR, 
a  fact  which  is  difficult  to  explain.  In  many  of  the  words 
ending  in  -EZIR,  the  presence  of  the  e  in  the  suffix  may 
be  regarded  as  only  apparent,  as  the  adjectives  to  which 
the  suffix  was  added  ended  in  e.  Such  words  are  aigrezir, 
alegrezir,  fehlezir,  negrezir,  noblezir,  pauhrezir,  and  tehezir, 
formed  on  aigre,  alegre,  feble,  etc.  Yet  in  many  cases,  we 
find  verbs  in  -EZIR  beside  adjectives  ending  in  a  conson- 
ant, as  in  falbezir  beside  falb,  and  flaquezir  beside  flac — 

'  Vol.  I,  p.  70  of  the  Introduction.    • 
^  As  in  durcir,  eclaircir,  and  noircir. 


Formation  of  Verbs  365 

thus  a  real  suffix  -EZIR.  Several  possible  explanations 
of  these  words  may  be  ofTered,  though  none  seems  thor- 
oughly satisfactory.  The  large  number  of  words  in  which 
the  e  of  the  suffix  was  due  to  phonetic  reasons,  as  in  the 
words  given  above,  may  have  influenced  the  form  of  the 
suffix  when  added  to  words  ending  in  consonants,  particu- 
larly if  they  ended  in  consonant-groups,  as  velh  and  hlanc^ 
or  in  s,  as  in  dots  and  espes.^  Or  the  e  may  have  been 
due  in  some  cases  to  the  formation  of  learned  words  in 
Provengal  times  by  means  of  the  Latin  suffix  -ICIRE.- 
The  whole  matter,  however,  even  the  form  of  the  suffix 
from  which  the  Provengal  -(E) ZIR  is  derived,  is  purely 
hypothetical. 

The  following  verbs  end  in  -EZIR,  and  their  base  is 
in  each  case  an  adjective: 

aigrezir,  become  sour  aigre,  sour 

alegrezir,  make  happy  alegre,  happy 

blanquezir,  whiten  blanc,  white 

brunezir,  become  brown  brun,  brown 

dolsezir,  soften,  sweeten  dols,  sweet 

espesezir,  thicken  espes,  thick 

falbezir,  become  pale  falb,  pale 

feblezir,  grow  weak,  weaken  feble,  weak 

ferezir,  frighten,  drive  wild  fer,  wild 

flaquezir,  become  weak  ^ac,  weak 

fredezir,  become  cold  fret,  cold 

garrezir,  become  gray  {garre  is  in  Mistral) 

laidezir,  make  ugly  laid,  ugly 
malezir,  become  bad,  deteriorate       7nal,  bad 

molhezir,  moisten  molh,  moist 

negrezir,  become  black  negre,  black 

noblezir,  ennoble  noble,  noble 

1  In  espessir  or  espeszir  the  suffix  would  apparently  have  been  -IR 
not  -ZIR.  In  Fr.,  only  epaissir  is  now  found.  This  is  probably,  how- 
ever, only  a  formation  in  -IR  on  the  adjective  epais. 

2  As,  for  example,  *fericire.  Some  such  form  as  nigricire  (>Prov. 
negrezir)  may  have  served  as  a  model  for  formations  on  Germ,  adjectives 
of  color,  such  as  blanc  and  brun. 


366  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 

palezir,  grow  pale  pale,  pale 

paubrezir,  make  poor  paubre,  poor 

velhezir,  f  grow  old  relh,  old 

One  word  appears  to  be  formed  on  a  noun: 
vergonhezir,^  make  ashamed  vergonha,  shame 

Vergonhar,  showing  one  of  the  usual  types  of  formations, 
also  exists.  The  addition  of  this  suffix  to  a  noun  appears 
unusual. 

Several  words  add  -ZIR^  instead  of  -EZIR.     Such  are : 

amarzir,  make  bitter  amar,  bitter 

carzir,  make  dear  car,  dear 

clarzir,  make  clear  clar,  clear 

durzir,  become  hard  dur,  hard 

vilzir,  make  vile  vil,  vile 

-lAR 

The  Latin  suffix  -lARE  was  very  commonly  used  in 
forming  verbs  on  adjectives,  as  is  made  clear  by  the  forms 
in  the  Romance  languages,  as  well  as  by  the  words  found 

'  Although  this  word  may  really  exist,  it  appears  to  be  nothing  but 
a  corruption  of  vergonhozir,  formed  on  vergonhos,  ashamed,  just  as  we 
find  orgolhozir,  make  proud,  formed  on  orgolhos,  proud. 

2  These  words  are  quite  possibly  Lat.  formations,  in  which  case  the  i 
of  -ICIRE — the  intertonic  vowel — would  naturally  disappear.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  amaricare,  claricare,  and  vilicare  are  actually  found,  and 
the  forms  in  -ICIRE  are  analogical  formations.  In  the  case  of  durzir, 
durescere  is  the  Lat.  word  found,  and  the  Sp.  words  corresponding  to 
-CIR  and  -EZIR  having  -ECER  (<-ESCERE)  may  have  helped  to 
bring  about  the  confusion  with  -ESCERE,  from  which  the  Fr.  and  Prov. 
words  cannot  phonetically   be  derived. 

t  Other  words  ending  in  an  -EZIR  that  cannot  possibly  come  from 
-ICIRE  are  estobezir,  flechezir,  fremezir,  marcezir,  tebezir,  and  (ortezir. 
Estobezir,  be  astonished,  and  tebezir,  become  warm,  may  possibly  come 
from  *stupidire  and  tepidire,  formed  on  stupidus  and  tepidus  (see  p.  363) . 
Yet  this  process  could  not  have  spread  much  farther.  Flechezir,  bend, 
and  fremezir,  tremble,  may  show  substitutions  of  -EZIR  for  -IR.  Marce- 
zir, wither,  fade,  appears  to  represent  marcescere,  though  not  a  perfectly 
phonetic  development  of  it.  In  tortezir,  twist,  -EZIR  seems  to  be 
added  to  the  past  participle  tort  (probablj'  used  as  an  adjective)  of  the 
verb  torser. 


Formation  of  Verbs  367 

in  Latin  itself.  But  it  is  never  found  as  a  suffix  in  Romance 
for  the  reason  that  its  unaccented  i  or  y  element  combined 
regularly  according  to  phonetic  laws  with  the  preceding 
consonant,  giving  a  different  result  in  each  case  according 
to  the  consonant.  The  force  of  the  suffix  was  about  the 
same  as  that  of  -AR,  and  there  was  nothing  to  make  it 
strongly  enough  felt  as  a  suffix  to  prevent  the  accomplish- 
ment of  phonetic  laws.  It  appears  not  to  have  been  used 
in  learned  words,  and  could  not  be  used  as  a  suffix  to 
form  new  words.  Several  words  in  Provengal  end  in  -lAR 
but  these  may  all  be  explained  in  other  ways.  The  list 
is  as  follows: 

contrariar,  oppose;  erbiar,  weed  out;  espesiar,  break  to  pieces; 
estresiar,  compress,  confine;  magriar,  become  thin;  martiriar, 
torture;  meitiar,  divide  in  half;  negociar,  trade;  principiar,  begin; 
and  rauquiar,  cry  hoarsely. 

Contrariar  and  martiriar  appear  to  be  formed  by  means  of  the 
suffix  -AR,  not  -lAR,  on  the  learned  words  contrari,  opposite,  and 
martiri,  torture. 

Erbiar  and  rauquiar  probably  should  be  erbejar  and  rauquejar. 
The  latter  is  found  in  Old  Provengal,  and  the  former  in  the  modern 
language. 

Espesiar  shows  a  change  from  -EGAR  to  -LAR,  or  else  a 
dropping  of  the  g.     Espesegar  has  been  treated  under  -EGAR. 

Estresiar  is  probably  only  a  learned  development  of  strictiare, 
tighten,  the  popular  form  being  estreisar.  The  form  of  the  word  is 
doubtful,  however.  Levy  points  out  that  Rochegude  has  estreciar, 
which  would  be  the  regular  learned  development  of  strictiare. 

Magriar  and  principiar  are  undoubtedly  the  Latin  *7nacriare 
and  *principiare  (the  latter  giving  the  Spanish  principiar) .  Negociar 
is  from  negotiari. 

Meitiar  is  a  peculiar  formation.  We  should  expect  meitadiar 
from  meitat.     It  appears  to  represent  a  medietare. 

-IFICAR 

There  is  a  good-sized  list  of  words  in  -IFICAR  in 
Provencal,  but  they  cause  little  difficulty,  as  such  a  suffix 
is  obviously  learned,  and  the  words  which  end  in  it  are 


368  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

either    developments    of    Latin    words    in    -IFICARE, 

practically  unchanged,  or  else  are  Provengal  imitations  of 

these  words/  similar  to  some  of  the  verbs  in  -IFIER  in 

French.     The  suffix  was  formed  both  on  adjectives  in 

-IFICUS,  as  magnificus,  by  adding  -ARE,  and  also  by 

adding  -FICARE  (for /acere)  to  nouns  and  adjectives  and 

even  to  verb-stems.^     In  Provencal,  -IFICAR  is  always 

found  in  all  of  these  uses.     The  list  follows: 

albeficar,  whiten  (alb);  damnificar,  injure  (damnar);  deificar,^ 
deify;  dignificar,^  dignify  (digne);  esamplificar,^  exemplify  (eisample) ; 
latificar,  broaden  (lat);  lenificar,  soften  {len);  maleficar,  bewitch 
(mal);  mondificar,^  purify  (monde);  mordcficar,^  prick;  ramificar,^ 
ramify  (ram) ;  ratificar,*  ratify  {rata  f) ;  rubificar,^  redden  (rubeus) ; 
sanctificar,^  sanctify  {sand);  sensificar,^  make  sensitive  (sens); 
vilificar,''  vihfy  {vil). 

-INAR,    -ONAR 

The  suffixes  -INAR  and  -ONAR,  which  are  of  about 
equal  frequency  in  Provengal,  will  be  treated  together 
here.  -INARE,  from  which  the  Provengal  -INAR  is 
derived,  is  found  as  a  suffix  in  Latin,  but  -ONAR  seems 
to  be  of  more  recent  and  probably  analogical  formation. 
-INARE  is,  for  example,  given  by  Cooper  in  his  list  of 
Latin  verbal  suffixes,  but  it  is  mentioned  as  a  suffix  par- 
ticularly common  in  Vulgar  Latin,  though  found  occasion- 
ally in  Cicero.    It  is  found  in  Classical  Latin  in  such  words 

1  That  is,  the  suffix  is  never  found  in  any  really  popular  Prov. 
formations. 

2  To  nouns  in  such  words  as  aedificare;  to  adjectives  in  such  words  as 
sanctificare,  and  to  verb-stems  in  horrificare,  etc.  It  has  the  meanings 
of  "to  make,"  "to  bring  to  a  certain  state,"  and  "to  cause." 

3  Found  in  Class.  Lat. 
<  Of  Low  Lat.  origin. 

'  Found  in  scholastic  Lat. 
s  Clearly  a  Lat.  formation. 

'  Given  by  Goelzer,  90,  together  with  many  of  the  other  words 
listed  above. 


Formation  of  Verbs  369 

as  destinare  and  obstinare,  the  latter  of  which,  through  its 
existence  beside  obstare,  would  give  the  appearance  of  a 
suffix  -INARE  added  to  the  stem  of  the  verb.  This  suffix 
was  then  added  to  verb-stems. 

The  Romance  languages  in  general  show  how  common 
-INARE  must  have  been,  but  in  most  of  them  the  fall 
of  the  intertonic  vowel  prevents  it  from  appearing  clearly 
as  a  suffix.  It  nevertheless  was  frequent  enough  in  Vulgar 
Latin  to  be  substituted  for  other  suffixes,  as  -ITARE,  for 
example.  The  Spanish  word  voznar  clearly  shows  this 
substitution,  and  Spanish  graznar  and  Italian  gracidare 
show  -INARE  and  -ITARE  existing  side  by  side  in  their 
modern  developments.^  The  Spanish  maznar  (for  macer- 
aref)  also  shows  a  substitution  of  -INAR  for  another 
ending.  The  words  which  show  -INAR  in  Provengal,  how- 
ever, cannot,  of  course,  be  formed  in  this  way,  in  which 
case  the  vowel  would  have  disappeared  as  in  the  other 
words.  Some  of  them  are  really  only  verbs  formed  by 
adding  the  verbal  ending  -AR  to  nouns  ending  in  -IN; 
others  seem  to  have  continued  the  Latin  process  of  sub- 
stituting -INAR  for  other  verbal  suffixes;  and  one  word 
apparently  shows  the  suffix  added  to  a  noun  within 
Romance  times.  Thus  the  suffix  continued  to  be  felt, 
although  in  the  popular  words  formed  in  Latin,  it 
gradually  lost  the  appearance  of  a  suffix. 

The  Provengal  words  in  -INAR  (which  will  be  treated 
individually  below)  are  as  follows : 

bozinar,  englutinar,  girbaudinar,  grafinar,  and  languinar. 

Bozinar  and  grafinar  appear  to  be  formed  by  adding 
-AR,  and  not  -INAR,  to  the  nouns  bozina  and  grafi. 
Bozinar  is  found  with  the  meaning  of  "to  make  a  noise," 

1  For  these  suffixes  in  Lat.,  see  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  663,  sec.  587; 
Cooper,  242. 


370  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

"rumble,"  etc.,  similar  to  the  meaning  which  Mistral 
gives  for  bousina,  and  could  be  formed  on  bozina,^  trumpet, 
although  it  has  another  meaning  of  "to  act  foolishly," 
according  to  Levy,-  which  may  represent  a  word  of 
entirely  different  origin.  Grafinar,  to  scratch,  may  have 
been  formed  on  grafi,  stylus. 

Languinar,  to  languish,  yearn  after,  shows  -INAR 
added  to  a  verb-stem,  that  of  languir,  and  substituted  for 
-IR  with  little  or  no  change  of  meaning.  Englutinar  is 
only  the  Latin  glutinare  with  a  prefix.  Words  like  this, 
reaching  the  Romance  languages  practically  unchanged, 
together  with  such  common  words  as  the  derivatives  of 
obstinare,  give  rise  to  the  use  of  -INAR  as  a  suffix  added 
to  verb-stems.^ 

One  other  Provencal  word  with  this  suffix  is  gir- 
baudinar,^  to  outrage,  insult.  This  appears  to  be  formed 
on  girbaiit,  vulgar  fellow.     Girbaudar  is  not  found. 

-ONARE  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  as  a 
suffix  in  Latin,  but  the  forms  derived  from  it,  -ONAR 
and  -ONNER,  are  found  used  as  suffixes  in  Provengal  and 
French.  Li  Provengal,  -ONAR  occurs  in  several  words, 
but  in  most  of  them,  as  was  sometimes  the  case  with 
-INAR,  it  is  not  a  compound  verbal  suffix  that  is  repre- 
sented, but  only  the  simple  suffix  -AR  attached  to  a  noun 
in  -ON.  As  these  words  were  fairly  common,  and  because 
of  the  influence  of  the  suffix  -INAR,  there  may  have  come 
about  the  use  of  -ONAR  as  a  real  suffix.'' 

>  From  buccina. 

2 1,  ieo. 

'  Cf.  the  Fr.  words  ending  in  -INER,  as  trottiner,  pietiner,  etc.,  in 
which  -INER  is  substituted  for  -ER. 

*  Or  possibly  enguirbaudinar.     See  Levy,  III,  2. 

'  If  such  use  exists.  Tastonar  seems  to  be  the  only  probable  example 
of  it.     In  Fr.,  however,  -ONNER  is  much  commoner  than  -INER. 


Formation  of  Verbs  371 

The  words  in  which  -ONAR  is  found,  the  verbal  suffix 
being,  however,  only  -AR,  are: 

agachonar,  provide  witnesses  agachon,  witness 

amolonar,  pile  up 

The  word  may  be  a  parasynthe- 
ton  formed  on  molon,  a  mass,  or 
it  may  possibly  be  a  real  example 
of  the  use  of  the  verbal  suffix 
-ONAR,  being  formed  on  the  verb 
amolar,  pile  up. 
mencionar,^  mention  mencion,  mention 

The  only  word  that  is  a  certain  example  of  a  suffix 
-ONAR  is: 

tastonar,^  grope  tastar,  touch 

-IZAR 

The  Provengal  words  ending  in  -IZAR  give  little 
difficulty.  They  are  few  in  number  and  are  regularly 
formed  by  adding  the  suffix  to  nouns.  The  source  of  the 
suffix  is  the  same  as  for  -EJAR,  the  Greek  -i^eiv, 
which  became  -IZARE  in  Latin.  This  form  was  first 
added  to  words  of  Greek  origin,  and  then  to  Latin  words. 
On  the  one  hand,  both  the  form  of  the  suffix  and  the  kind 
of  word  formed  remained  very  nearly  the  same  as  at  the 
beginning,  as  in  -IZAR;  on  the  other,  in  popular  words, 
the  suffix  must  have  changed  into  -IDIARE,  whence  the 
Provencal  -EJAR,  already  treated.  -IZAR  from  -IZARE 
was  not,  then,  a  popular  suffix,  as  indeed  our  Provencal 
words  show.  These  are  either  words  formed  in  Latin,  or 
Provengal  imitations  of  such  learned  words.  Some 
of  them,  as  escandalizar,  scandalize,  evangelizar,  evangelize, 
organizar,   organize,   and  sincopizar,   faint,   have   Greek 

1  Cf.  the  Fr.  tdtonner,  beside  idler. 


t  Also  escaironar,  from  escairon,  but  the  word  is  doubtful. 


372  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

words  at  their  base,  and  appear  to  have  been  formed  in 

Latin.     Polverizar   also    may    be  derived   from   a   word 

already  formed  in  Latin. ^ 

A  few  words   seem   to   be   formed    in    Provencal   in 

imitation  of  the  Latin  learned  formation: 

colizar,-  pay  a  tax  cota,  price,  share 

favorizar,^  favor  favor,  favor 

inventarizar,  make  inventory  inventari,  inventory 

marlirizar,^  massacre  martiri,  torture 

mercandizar ,]  carry  on  business  mercan{t),  merchant 

The  later  history  of  the  suffix  may  be  seen  in  French — 
in  which  new  verbs  in  -IZAR,  often  taking  the  place  of 
those  in  -ER,  are  formed  on  modern  French  words,  both 
nouns  and  adjectives — and  in  English  where  it  exists  as 
-IZE. 

lA  corresponding  form  exists  also  iu  Fr.,  in  which  language  the 
simple  word  developed  into  poudre.  The  Fr.  verb  might,  of  course,  be 
a  late  imitation  of  a  Lat.  word,  but  similar  forms  exist  in  too  many 
languages  for  this  to  be  probable. 

2  Found  also  in  Fr.    From  Late  Lat.  words  ? 


t  Other  words  not  formed  in  Prov.  are  pactizar,  make  an  agreement 
(found  also  in  Fr.),  and  preconizar,  make  known,  from  a  Late  Lat. 
praeconizare. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FORMATION  OF  ADVERBS 

The  last  of  the  great  divisions  containing  words  formed 
by  the  addition  of  suffixes  consists  of  adverbs.  Here, 
however,  though  one  other  ending  will  be  mentioned, 
there  is  only  one  suffix  requiring  detailed  treatment,  hav- 
ing become  in  all  Romance  practically  the  only  one  used 
in  the  formation  of  adverbs.  This  is,  of  course,  the  Latin 
suffix  -MENTE  and  the  Provengal  -MEN,  which,  on 
account  of  being  added  to  the  feminine  form  of  the 
adjective^ — generally  ending  in  a — may  be  given  as 
-AMEN. 

(-a)  MEN 

The  numerous  adverbs  in  -AMEN  and  -MEN  formed 
on  adjectives  present  little  interest,  being  always  regularly 
formed.^  Adverbs  formed  by  means  of  this  suffix  on 
words  other  than  adjectives  and  past  participles  are  very 
rare  and  hard  to  explain.  For  example,  there  are  a  few 
words  formed  on  nouns: 

1  The  reason  being  that  -MENTE  represented  the  Lat.  feminine 
noun  mens,  mentis. 

2  There  are  several  words  with  these  endings  beside  which  no  corre- 
sponding adjectives  are  found,  examples  of  such  words  being  onorifi- 
cablamen,  to  the  full  value;  plaziblamen,  in  a  pleasing  manner;  plori- 
volm,en,  lamentably;  presencialmen,  as  being  present;  and  prodomialmen, 
honorably.  Probably  the  adjectives  onorificable,  plorivol,  etc.,  existed, 
but  it  seems  unnecessary  to  assume  their  existence.  Since  -ABLE  and 
-AL  are  two  of  the  commonest  endings  for  adjectives,  and  -MEN  is 
very  often  attached  to  words  with  these  endings  to  form  adverbs, 
-ABLEMEN  and  -ALMEN  were  found  very  frequently,  and  may  have 
come  to  be  added  as  single  suffixes  to  the  proper  base-words  when  need 
for  such  formations  arose.  Thus  presencialmen  may  have  been  formed 
directly  on  presencia,  etc.     They  would  in  this  case  be  double  suffixes. 

373 


374  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

domenjamen,    in    particular,    pri-    domenge,  property 

vately 
ligemen,^  like  a  vassal  lige,  liege 

mercandamen,    in    a    businesslike     mercan{t)  merchant 

way 

There  are  also  words  apparently  formed  on  verb-stems : 

de{s)liuramen;  Levy  translates  by 
"free,  unhindered,"  thus  mak- 
ing the  word  an  adjective;  it 
also  has  the  meaning  "immedi- 
ately"; from  de{s)liurar,  deliver 

enrevironamen,  roundabout  enrevironar,  surround 

-MEN  is  added  to  other  words  m : 
eisemsmen,^  together  eisems,  together 

Here  the  suffix  has  no  force. 

-ADA MEN,    -ID AMEN,    -UDAMEN 

This  brings  us  to  the  words  formed  on  past  participles. 
These  are  numerous  enough  to  have  given  rise  in  the  regu- 
lar past  participles  to  apparent  suffixes  -ADAMEN, 
-IDAMEN,  and  -UDAMEN,  which  are,  however,  only 
the  feminine  form  of  past  participles  in  -AT,  -IT,  and 
-UT+the  adverbial  suffix.  Past  participles  being  often 
used  precisely  as  adjectives,  it  was  natural  to  form  adverbs 

•  Lige,  on  which  this  adverb  is  formed,  is  used  in  the  examples 
both  as  adjective  and  noun,  and  would  be  a  proper  starting-point  for 
the  formation  of  the  other  words,  if  they  need  any  such  starting-point. 
When  a  need  for  this  particular  kind  of  formation  arose,  however,  the 
ordinary  adverbial  ending  was  used,  its  original  use  apparently  being 
forgotten.  Another  adverb  possibly  formed  on  a  noun  is  fachamen, 
found  in  the  phrase:  com  fachamen,  just  as.  Possibly  formed  on  fach, 
deed? 

2  Esmamen,  likewise,  may  also  be  mentioned  here.  The  word 
is  obscure,  but  appears  to  be  a  deformation  of  eisamen<ipsa  mente, 
perhaps  owing  to  a  confusion  vnth  eisemsmen.  Still  another  word  of 
this  kind  is  maimamen,  especially.  This  appears  to  represent  a  borrow- 
ing of  the  O.  Fr.  memement,  probably  influenced  in  its  forms  by  the 
Prov.  mai. 


Formation  of  Adverbs 


375 


on  them  by  means  of  the  suffix  -MEN.     Formations  on 

irregular  past  participles  are  seen  in: 

derotamen,  bitterly  derot,  past  participle  of  derotnpre, 

tear,  tear  away 
encluzamen,  inclusive  enclus,  included  (endure) 

escosiamen,  secretly  escost,  concealed  (escondre) 

obertameti,  clearly  obert,  clear,  open 

The  above  forms  clearly  show  adverbs  formed  on  past 
participles.  In  the  words  to  follow,  the  formation  is  the 
same,  but  the  participial  endings +the  adverbial  suffix 
give  the  longer  apparent  forms.  The  first  conjugation  is 
represented,  therefore,  by  the  ending  -ADAMEN.  It 
is  found  in: 


abreujadamen,  in  shortened  form 
abrivadamen,  quickly 
acordadamen,  in  harmony 
acoselhadamen,  attentively 
ajostadamen,  conjointly 
amadamen,  with  love 
amagadameyi,  secretly 
amenradamen,  sparingly 

amezuradamen,  reasonably 
aiparelhadamen,  in  order 
apensadamen,  intentionally 
aplatadamen,  secretly 
apoderadamen,  mightily 
apropriadamen,  suitably 
asembladamen,  together 
asenadamen,  comprehendingly 
asermadamen,  properly 
asinhadamen,  punctually 
asoniadamen,  summarily 
ateiradamen,  successively 
aviadamen,  quickly 
azordenadamen,  with  order 
continuadamen,  continuously 
curadamen,  carefully 
deliberadamen,  deliberately 
deputadamen,  in  fixed  order 


abreujar,  shorten 

abrivar,  hasten 

acordar,  be  in  accord 

acoselhar,  counsel 

ajostar,  bring  together,  reunite 

amar,  love 

aniagar,  hide 

(Only  the  forms  amermar  and 

amenudar,  diminish) 
amezurar,  measure 
aparelhar,  pair,  fit 
apensar,  think 
aplatar,  flatten,  hide 
apoderar,  force,  strain 
apropriar,  adapt,  suit 
asemblar,  assemble 
asenar,  make  intelligible 
asermar,  prepare,  arrange 
asinhar,  assign 
asomar,  sum  up 
ateirar,  put  in  rows 
aviar,  lead,  journey 
azordenar,  order,  put  in  order 
continuar,  continue 
curar,  take  pains 
deliberar,  deliberate 
deputar,  determine 


376 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


desplegadamen,  explicitly 
desvergonhadanien,  shamelessly 
detennenadame n ,  with  determination 
detriadamen,  preferably 
dezesperadamen,  hopelessly 
dezordenadamen,  in  disorderly  way 
envezadamen,  gaily 
esforsadamen,  with  effort 
espresadmnen,  distinctly 
esproadamen,  in  tried  manner 
esenhadamen,  knowingly 
fisadamen,  fixedly 
fondadainen,  thoroughly 
forsadamen,  under  compulsion 
iradamen,  angrily 
membradamen,  wittingly 
mescladamen,  pell-mell 
mezuradamen,  with  moderation 
moderadamen,  moderately 
nom {e)nativadamen,  mentioning 

the  name 
nomeradarnen,  for  cash 
nomnadamen,  by  name 
onradamen,  honorably 
ordenadamen,  regularly 
pasadamen,  past 
pauzadamen,  sedately 
pobladamen,  publicly 
ponchadamen,  punctuated 
regladamen,  regularly 
sebradamen,  separately 
tempradamen,  moderately 
uzadamen,  f  usually 


desplegar,  display 

dcsvergonhar,  become  dissolute 

delcrmenar,  determine 

detriar,  distinguish,  choose 

dezesperar,  despair 

dezordenar,    behave    improperly 

envezar,  rejoice 

esforsar,  strive 

espresar,  express 

esproar,  try,  test 

esenhar,  teach 

fisar,  fix 

fondar,  found 

forsar,  force 

irar,^  become  angry 

membrar,  remember 

mesclar,  mix,  confuse 

viezurar,  measure 

moderar,  moderate 

nomenativar,  name 

nomerar,  enumerate,  count 
nomnar,  name 
onrar,  honor 
ordenar,  order 
pasar,  pass 
pauzar,  place 
poblar,  populate 
ponchar,  punctuate 
reglar,  regular 
sebrar,  separate 
temprar,  moderate 
iizar,  use 


1  The  existence  of  irar  is  uncertain,  but  a  participial  form  irat  cer- 
tainly existed,  and  of  course  iradamen  would  be  formed  directly  on  that. 


t  A  few  words  in  which  -ADAMEN  is  added  to  words  other  than 
verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  are  worthy  of  note.  In  atrasajadamen, 
certainly,  the  suffix  is  added  to  the  adverb  atrasag,  surely,  and  brings  no 
change  in  meaning.  In  fastadamen,  hastily,  and  particuladamen,  by 
particles,  the  suffix  is  added  to  the  nouns  fasta  and  particul,  and  in  una- 
damen,  by  ones  or  singly,  to  an  adjective.  This  is  certainly  because 
-ADAMEN  was  taken  to  be  a  simple  adverbial  suffix.  Another  inter- 
esting word  is  dezegada7nen,  powerfully,  apparently  formed  on  egar,  to 
equal.     This  would  be  a  rather  peculiar  parasynthetic  formation. 


Formation  of  Adverbs 


377 


-IDAMEN  is  the  ending  found  in  adverbs  built  on 
verbs  of  the  second  conjugation: 


afortidamen,  courageously 
co7nplidamen,  completely 
departidamen,  separately 
devezidamen,  divisibly 
esclarzidamen,  clearly 
estanquidanien,^  in  full,  to  com- 
pletion 
falhidamen,  faultily 
grazidamen,  willingly 
marridamen,  sadly 
partidamen,  separately 
polidamen,  f  politely 


afortir,  strengthen 
complir,  complete 
departir,  divide,  separate 
devezir,  divide 
esclarzir,  clear  up 


falhir,  fail 
grazir,  thank 
marrir,  sadden 
partir,  divide 
polir,  polish 


-UDAMEN  is  found  in  a  few  adverbs  formed  on  the 
past  participles  of  verbs  in  -re  and  -er: 


atendudamen,  attentively 
corrompudamen,  corruptly 
entendudamen,  intently 
escondudamen,  secretly 
vencudamen,  as  a  conquered  man 


atendre,  wait  for 
corrompre,  corrupt 
entendre,  hear,  understand 
escondre,  hide 
veneer,  conquer 


-AS 

Besides  the  common  suffixes  -AMEN  and  -ADAMEN, 
ther^  is  one  more  adverbial  ending  that  should  be  men- 
tioned with  the  other  suffixes.  This  is  the  ending  -AS, 
used  apparently  as  an  ordinary  Provengal  suffix  in  such 

1  Estanquir,  though  not  found,  may  have  existed,  Cf.  estanqui  in 
Mistral. 


t  A  word  in  -IDAMEN  not  formed  on  a  verb  is  escautridamen, 
slyly,  built  on  escautrit,  sly — a  normal  formation  on  an  adjective,  -IT 
being  found  as  a  suffix  in  cases  other  than  the  past  participle  of 
the  verb  of  the  second  conjugation.  Formations  in  -ADAMEN, 
-IDAMEN,  and  -UDAMEN  in  which  the  verb  at  the  base  is  not  to  be 
distinguished  are  very  rare,  however,  although  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  have  existed.  The  large  number  of  forms  in  which 
-AT,  -IT,  and  -UT  represented  the  past  participle  endings  may  have 
caused  the  long  adverbial  suffixes  to  be  associated  almost  exclusively 
with  verbs.  Yet  such  forms  as  fastadamen  (see  p.  376,  n.  t),  are  quite 
clearly  formations  on  nouns,  fastat  not  being  found. 


378  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 

words  as  longas  from  loncj  certas  beside  cert,  {a)envidas 
beside  envit,  and  primas  beside  prim.  Tiiis  suffix  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  explain,  but  its  origin  seems  to  be  as 
follows :  Many  adverbs  in  their-  regular  developments 
from  their  Latin  source  happened  to  end  in  s,  as  mens<. 
minus,  alhors <aliorsum,  ints<iintus,  and  the  compara- 
tive forms  mais  and  j)lus.  By  analogy,  therefore,  s  was 
added  to  other  words  not  having  it  etymologically,  as 
in  ensemps  <  in  simul,  and  it  is  even  found  added  to  the 
ending  -AMEN  described  above.  Some  of  the  words  to 
which  s  was  thus  added  must  have  ended  in  a,  as  *poisa, 
the  regular  development  of  postea,  and  aora,  probably 
from  ad  horam.  Now,  as  shortened  forms  of  these  words 
probably  existed  also,  as  *pois^  (from  *postiumf),  the 
-AS  may  have  been  taken  for  the  ending.  It  is  found, 
at  an\^  rate,  with  the  force  of  an  adverbial  suffix  in  the 
words  mentioned  above.  The  complete  list  of  the  adverbs 
ending  in  -AS  follows : 

aoras,  now  =  aora  (from  ad  horam) 

+S 
certas,"^  certainly  cert,  certain 

daveras,^  in  truth  ver,  true  , 

(a)envidas,    in    spite  of    oneself; 

from  *  envit*  {<invite)+AS 

1  Cf.  the  Fr.  puis  and  the  Sp.  pues.  Or  for  ora  probably  also  existed. 
Cf.  the  Fr.  or. 

-  The  Die.  Gen.  gives  a  popular  Lat.  *certas  as  the  etymon  for  certes 
in  Fr.,  but  this  is  perhaps  unnecessary. 

3  The  form  of  daveras  is  very  puzzling.  There  seems  to  be  no 
phonetic  reason  for  the  a  in  the  first  syllable,  which  seems  to  show  the 
influence  of  the  It.  davvero.  Veras  might  have  been  formed  on  ver  by 
the  analogy  of  poisas,  etc.,  and  it  was  probably  strengthened  by  the 
prefixing  of  the  preposition  de  (cf.  the  Sp.  de  veras,  a  solas,  etc.).  Later  on, 
daveras  was  further  strengthened  by  the  additional  use  of  a  and  per, 
as  seen  in  the  phrases  a  daveras  and  per  daveras.     See  Levy,  II,  16. 

« Envit,  a  noun,  of  different  origin,  is  found  in  Prov. 


Formation  of  Adverbs  379 


foras,  outside.  The  ending  is  here 
etymological;  from  the  Latin 
foras 

longas,  a  long  time  lone,  long 

loras,  at  that  time;  from  *lora 
{<ad  illam  horam)+S 

nemias,  exceedingly.  The  s  is  ety- 
mological, but  the  develop- 
ment has  been  influenced  by  the 
analogy  of  the  other  words  in 
-AS 

oncas,  ever;  from  *onca  {<un- 
quam)  +S 

poisas,  then;  from  *poisa 
{<postea)+S 

primas,  at  first  prim,  first 

propdas,  near;  from  *propitanus  ( ?) 


CHAPTER  V 
DOUBLE  SUFFIXES 

DOUBLE    SUFFIXES    IN    GENERAL 

In  dealing  with  the  different  kinds  of  words  formed  by 
the  addition  of  suffixes,  reference  has  often  been  made  to 
a  hst  of  double  suffixes.  Words  of  this  kind  were  given 
without  explanation  under  the  suffix  in  which  they  ended, 
since  the  use  of  double  suffixes  m  Provengal  is  important 
enough  and  of  great  enough  interest  to  deserve  a  chapter 
by  itself. 

In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  what 
is  meant  by  double  suffixes.  This  term  is  used  in  a 
broad  sense  to  include  both  words  that  have  had  (1)  two 
suffixes  added  to  them  separately  at  different  times,  and 
(2)  an  ending  originally  composed  of  two  distinct  suffixes 
but  probably  added  later  as  one  indivisible  suffix  to  the 
simple  word.  Thus  the  broad  term,  double  suffixes,  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  of  which  will  be  called 
"real  double  suffixes,"  and  the  second,  "compound  suf- 
fixes." Although  it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  in  just  which 
way  the  suffixes  were  added,  there  are  several  principles 
to  aid  us.  One  of  these  is  the  numbers  in  which  certain 
combinations  of  suffixes  are  found.  Take,  for  example, 
the  combinations  whose  first  part  is  -AIR-,  and  we  find 
numerous  examples  of  each  of  the  following:  -AIRADA, 
-AIRAL,  -AIRET,  -AIRIA,  -AIRIER,  -AIROL,  and 
-AIRON.  It  appears,  then,  from  this  list,  that  -AIR- 
from  -ARIUS  is  a  form  that  was  particularly  used  in 
connection  with  other  suffixes.  As  early  as  the  Latin 
inscriptions,  we  find  examples  of  -ARIOLUS,  and  even 

380 


Double  Suffixes  381 

-ARIARIUS/  in  which  -ARIUS  is  redupHcated.  Besides 
-ARIUS,  the  suffixes  to  which  others  were  most  commonly 
joined  are  -EL,  -AT,  and  -ADA,  -ANDA,  -ANSA,  and  -AS. 
Mere  nmnber  is  not,  however,  the  only  test  as  to  the 
existence  of  compomid  suffixes.  Often  the  meaning  makes 
it  clear  that  it  is  to  the  simple  word  that  the  combination 
is  added,  and  often  the  word  with  the  single  suffix  has 
disappeared  altogether. 

A.      REAL   DOUBLE    SUFFIXES 

The  "real  double  suffixes"  will  be  studied  first.  Two 
of  the  words  from  the  list  below  may  be  given  as  examples. 
Jornadasa,  long  day's  journey,  and  frairesquier,  sharer 
of  a  brother's  portion,  illustrate  the  type  well.  In  both 
of  these  words,  each  individual  suffix  has  a  well-defined 
force  of  its  own.  The  words  containing  real  double 
suffixes,  therefore,  are  those  in  which  the  force  of  each  of 
the  two  suffixes  is  perceptible,  and  in  which  this  is  made 
clear  bj^  the  simultaneous  existence  of  the  simple  word, 
the  Avord  ^'ith  the  single  suffix,  and  the  word  wath  both.^ 

The  lists  of  words  containing  real  double  suffixes^  A\dll 

1  Olcott,  139-40. 

2  In  some  of  the  examples  in  which  an  adjective  was  formed  on  a 
simple  word  which  was  also  an  adjective,  the  first  suffix  gave  little  change 
of  meaning.  This  is  usual,  however,  in  this  kind  of  a  formation,  and 
no  compound  suffix  can  be  seen  in  these  isolated  examples.  On  the  other 
hand,  sometimes  all  three  forms  are  found  in  examples  given  under 
compound  suffixes:  but  when  two  suffixes  are  frequently  combined,  the 
first  being  one  that  changed  the  simple  word  but  little,  the  inference  is, 
that  though  originally  added  separately,  they  became  finallj'  a  single 
suffix.  Whether  the  word  with  the  simple  suffix  exists  or  not,  in  most 
cases  of  these  compound  suffixes  the  formation  is  seen  to  be  made  on  the 
simple  word. 

3  All  words  ending  in  -ELET  and  all  words  ending  in  -AIR4- 
another  suffix  have  been  excluded  from  this  list  and  treated  under  com- 
pound suffixes.  In  the  case  of  -ELET,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  ever 
added  as  a  single  suffix,  but  the  words  ending  in  it  are  so  numerous  that 


382  Word-Formation  in  PROA^ENgAL 

be  given  together,  first  the  nouns,  then  the  adjectives, 
and  then  the  verbs,  after  which  the  compound  suffixes 
will  be  studied  in  detail. 

I.  Nouns. — First  come  the  nouns:  Here  the  last  of 
the  two  suffixes  may  be  attached  either  (1)  to  a  noun  or 
(2)   to  an  adjective. 

1.  The  word  to  which  the  last  suffix  is  attached  being 
a  noun. — When  the  base  to  which  the  second  of  two 
suffixes  forming  a  noun  is  attached,  is  a  noun,  this  noun 
may  itself  be  derived  either  from  (a)  a  noun  or  (6)  a  verb. 

(a)  First  come  the  cases  in  which  it  is  a  noun: 

albaran,  scrap  of  paper  albar,  sapwood  (alba,    white  pop- 
lar) 

astelatz,  log  astela,  splinter  asta,  pike 

barralier,  cooper  barral,  cask  barra,  bar 

bocinada,  mouthful  bocina,  mouth  boca,  mouth 

bordelairia,  libertinage  bordel,  brothel  borda,  rustic  house 

bresolet,  small  cradle  bresol,  cradle  bres,  cradle 

caironet,  small  hewn  stone  cairon,  hewn  stone  caire,  corner 

canabasier,  weaver  canabas,  hempen  cloth  canebe,  hemp 

capelier,  hatter  capel,  hat  cap,  hat 

carretada,  cartload  carreta,  small  cart  car,  cart 


for  convenience  of  treatment  they  have  all  been  grouped  together  under 
compound  suffixes  and  explained  there.  As  for  the  suffixes  beginning 
with  -AIR-,  representing  -ARIUS,  it  may  be  said  that  Olcott  (1-39-40) 
gives  examples  of  -ARIARIUS  and  -ARIOLUS  in  the  inscriptions,  thus 
showing  the  early  tendency  of  -ARIUS  to  attach  another  suffix  to  itself. 
Such  forms  as  these,  which  regularly  developed  into  -AIRIER  and 
-AIROL,  finally  becoming  attached  as  one  suffix  (see  compound  suffixes), 
formed  a  model  for  a  new  Prov.  compound  suffix.  Generally  the  Prov. 
word  shows  in  its  meaning  that  the  two  suffixes  were  added  as  one  to  the 
simple  word,  and  the  form  proves  that  the  last  suffix  cannot  have  been 
added  to  a  Prov.  word  ending  in  -lER.  Such  words  as  carrairier  and 
carraireta,  though  their  meaning  seems  to  indicate  a  separate  addition 
of  the  two  suffixes,  thus  real  double  suffixes,  are,  therefore,  though 
difficult  to  explain,  listed,  under  the  proper  heading,  among  the  words 
beginning  with  -AIR-,  or  compound  suffixes.  In  other  cases,  as  in  that 
of  bandiera,  which  persists  beside  banda  and  bandairier  (although  ban- 
dairier  appears  to  have  been  formed  directly  on  banda),  the  persistence 
of  the  word  in  -lER  is  perhaps  due  to  the  influence  of  such  words  as 
culhier  and  denier.  In  these  cases,  the  simple  word,  i.e.,  without  -ARIUS, 
had  disappeared  very  early,  so  that  we  have  in  culhairada  and  denairada, 
etc.,  really  only  one  .suffix  added. 


Double  Suffixes 


383 


caslania,  defense  of  castles 

cazalet,  small  country-house 

celararia,  oflBce  of  cellarer 

colhonet,  testicle 

cridoria,  uproar 

cubelot,  small  vat 

dentelhet,  small  battlement 

drechuria,  right,  title 

enfantonet,  small  child 

escobilhier,  sweepings 

escudelier,^  stand  for  bowls       / 

escudelon,^  small  bowl  ) 

esponderatge,  execution  of  a  will 

fachilhier,  sorcerer 

fachurier,  sorcerer 

ferralhier,  ironmonger 

ferratalha,  old  iron  ^ 

ferrataria,  ironware 

ferratier,  ironmonger  ) 

filadalha,  spun  yarn 

filholatge,  adoption  I 

filholet,  small  godson  j 

fogaseta,  small  roll  [ 

fogasol,  small  roll  ) 

fogatgier,  collector  of  hearth 
tax 

fornatjaria.  Stove  tax 

fornilhier,    vendor   of   kind- 
ling-wood 

frairesquier,    sharer    of 
brother's  portion 

gonelon,^  coat 

jornadasa,  long  day's  journey 

juponier,  petticoat  maker 

juratairia,  college  of  "jurats" 

lebratina,  rabbit  skin 

mercadairet,  little  merchant 

mercadanier,  merchant 


mesatgier,  messenger  ) 

mesatjaria,  mission  ) 
ortalet,  little  garden 

ostalet,  small  house  \ 

ostalier,  hotel  keeper  |. 

ostalot,  small  house  i 
pasairil,  toll                               , 

peatgier,  toll-CoUector  \ 
peatgil,   place   where   toll   is  ( 

paid  ( 

peatjaria,  toll  / 
peisonet,  small  fish 

peisonier,  fisherman  ) 


caslan,  lord  of  a  castle 
cazal,  country-house 
celar,  cellar 
colhon,  testicle 
cridor,  cry 
cubel,  small  vat 
dentelh,  battlement 
drechura,  right 
enfanton,  child 
escobilha,  sweeping 

escudel,  bowl 

espondier,  executor 
fachilha,  charms 
fachura,  charm 
ferralha,  old  iron 

ferrat,  iron  pail 

filada,  layer 
filhol,  godson 

fogasa,  roll 
fogatge,  hearth  tax 

fornatja,  stove  tax 
fornilha,  kindling-wood 

frairesca,  brother's  por- 
tion 

gonela,  gOWn 

Jornada,  day's  journey 

jupon,  petticoat 

jurat,  "jurat" 

lebrat,  young  rabbit 

mercadier,  merchant 

mercadana,  utensil  of 
commerce 

mesatge,  message 

ortal,  garden 

■  ostal,  house 
pasiera,  passage 

peatge,  toll 


,-  peison,  fish 


castel,  castle 
caza,  house 
cela,  cell 
colh,  scrotum 
crit,  cry 
Cuba,  vat 
den(t),  tooth 
drech,  right 
enfan{t),  child 
escoba,  broom 

escut,  shield 

esponda,   bedside 

■fach,  face 


•  fer,  iron 

fil,  thread 
filh,  son 

foe,  fire 

-forn,  oven 

fraire,  brother 

gona,  gown 
jorn,  day 
jup,  skirt 
jur,  oath 
lebre,  rabbit 

( 

-  mercat,  market 

I 

mes,  messenger 
ort,  garden 

ost,  host 

pas,  passage 

pe,  foot 
peis,  fish 


Treated  also  under  compound  suffixes,  p.  392,  n.  j. 


384 


Word-Formation  in  Proven5al 


peletier,  dealer  in  skins 
peliseta,  small  fur  coat  ( 

pelisier,  dealer  in  fur  coats  i 

pesquirier,  fisherman  (p.  399,  n.f) 
pezonalha,  infantry  ) 

pezonier,  pedestrian  \ 

pigaseta,  smaU  axe 
pinholat,  candy  made  of  pine- 
seeds 
polalhier,  poultry  dealer 
polasier,  poultry  dealer 
ponselet,  small  bridge  (p.  392,  n.  t) 
popelon,  nipple 

porcelet,  sucking  pig  (p.  392,  n.  t) 
portalet,  small  door 
putanier,  libertine 
solaret,  story,  tier 


pel,  skin 


peleta,  pellicle 

pelisa,  fur  coat 

pesquier,  fishpond  pesca,  fishing 

pezon,  foot-soldier  pe,  foot 

pigasa,  axe  pic,  pickaxe 


pinhol,  pine-seed 

polalha,  poultry 
polatz,  chicken 
ponsel,  smaU  bridge 
popel,  nipple 
parcel,  pig 
portal,  portal 
putana,  prostitute 


pinha,  pine-cone 

pol,  cliicken 

pon{t),  bridge 
popa,  breast 
pore,  pig 
porta,  door 
puta,  prostitute 


soZar,  story (?),  ground  sol,  soil,  ground 


(6)  In  other  cases,  in  which  the  word  with  a  single 
suffix,  when  found,  is  a  noun,  the  base-word  is  a  verb. 
Examples  of  such  words  are: 


amagatalh,  hiding-place 
ambladureta,  little  amble 
avocadel,  little  lawyer 
crezensairia,  security 
esquivadansa,  lie,  evasion 
estatgiera,  frame,  trestle 
estatgil,   a  feudal  obligation 
estatjamen,  delay,  sojoiu-n 
fermalhier,  maker  of  buckles 
fermansaria,     fizansaria,     se- 
curity 
liuradon,    a    measure    of 

capacity 
pilhardaria,  plunder 


amhladura,  amble 
avocat,  lawyer 
crezensa,  guaranty 

estatge,     dwelling; 
.      sojourn ;  condition 

fermalh,  buckle 
fermansa,  fizansa,  se- 
curity 
liurada,  poimd 

pilhart,  trooper 


amagar,  hide 
amblar,  to  amble 
avocar,  call 
crezer,  believe 
esquivar,  shun 

estar,   stand,   Stay 


fermar,  close,  clasp 
fizar,  trust 

liurar,  deliver 
pilhar,  plimder 


2.  The  word  to  which  the  last  suffix  is  attached  being  an 
adjective. — There  are  also  some  words  ending  in  double 
suffixes  in  which  the  base  to  which  the  second  of  the  two 
suffixes  is  attached  is  an  adjective.  This  adjective  may 
itself  be  derived  from  (a)  a  noun,  (6)  another  adjective, 
or  (c)  a  verb. 

(a)  In  the  following  cases  it  is  derived  from  a  nomi: 


aurania,  folly 
fumosetat,  smokiness 
janglozia,  chatter 


auran,  light,  frivolous   aura,  air 
fuinos,  smoky  fum,  smoke 

janglos,  chattering         jangla,  chatter, 
mockery 


Double  Suffixes 


385 


proejisaZfs,  Provencal  language  proensal,  Provencal 
questalitat,  condition  of  being     questal,  subject  to  the 

subject  to  the  ' '  questa  "  "  questa ' ' 

vilanet,  villager 
vilania,  coarse  act 


Proensa.  Provence 
questa,  a  tax 


Vila,  farm 


-  vilan,  coarse,  rustic 

(6)  Next  come  the  cases  in  which  the  word  at  the  base 
is  an  adjective.  The  adjective  derived  from  this  simple 
word  shows  little  or  no  change  of  meanilig,  as  is  usually 
the  case  in  such  formations.  The  second  suffix  regularly 
changes  these  adjectives  into  abstract  nouns. 


certanetat,  certainty 
cominaleza,  community 
egalieretat,  equality 
francaleza,^     freehold     i 

erty(l)? 
gentileza,  gentleness 
moisardia,  deception 
moisonia,  ruse 
ricaudia,  pride 
ricozia,  t  haughtiness 


certan,  certain 
cominal,  common 
egalier,  equal 
francal,  free 


false 


gentil,  gentle,  noble 

moisart 

moison 

ricaut,  proud 

ricos,  haughty 


cert,  certain 
comun,  common 
egal,  equal 
franc,  free 

gen{t),  gentle 
mois,  false 

f  ric,  powerful 


(c)  In  the  following  cases,  the  base-word  appears  to 
be  a  verb.  On  this  was  formed  an  adjective,  and  upon 
this  adjective  an  abstract  noun  by  means  of  the  abstract 
suffixes  -TAT  and  -lA.     Thus  we  ffiid: 


agradabletat,  suitability,  pro- 
priety 
aprofechabletat,  improvement 
avinenteza,  pleasing  conduct 
manentia,  wealth 
membradia,  prudence 

muzardia,  folly 


agradable,    agreeable, 

suitable 
aprofechable,  profitable 
avinen{t),  pleasing^ 
manen{t),  rich^ 
membrat,  prudent 


please. 


agradar, 

suit 
aprofechar,  profit 
avenir,  happen 
maner,  live 
membrar,    remem- 
ber 
niuzar,  loiter 

1  See  also  -ALEZA  under  compound  suffixes,  p.  396. 

2  Rather  peculiar  developments  of  meaning.  Avenir,  however, 
probably  had  some  such  meaning  as  "to  please,"  which  idea  is  found  in 
O.  Fr.  The  development  in  meaning  seen  in  manen  and  manentia  is  also 
common  to  other  languages. 


muzart,  loitering 


t  There  are  also  some  other  words  of  this  kind  apparently  having 
double  suffixes.  Such  are  felonia,  treachery,  and  glotonia  and  leconia, 
gluttony.  Both  fel  and  felon,  glot  and  gloton  exist  beside  the  derived 
nouns,  but  the  two  forms  represent  simply  remains  of  the  nominative 
and  accusative  cases.  In  the  other  example,  however,  only  lee  and  not 
lecon  is  found,  but  leconia  may  have  been  an  imitation  of  glotonia,  which 
has  the  same  meaning.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  even  possible  that  lecoji 
may  have  existed.     Cf.  the  It.  leccone. 


386 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


II.  Adjectives. — The  formation  of  adjectives  by  the 
addition  of  double  suffixes  does  not  differ  greatly  from 
that  of  nouns.  Here  again,  the  distinction  between  the 
real  double  suffixes  and  the  compound  ones  may  be  made. 
In  the  case  of  the  real  double  suffixes,  the  final  suffix, 
when  added  to  a  noun,  simply  changes  the  noun  with  a 
single  suffix  into  an  adjective,  as,  for  example,  sohransa, 
pride,  into  sobransier,  proud,  the  adjectival  suffix  having 
its  usual  force.  It  makes  little  difference,  however, 
whether  the  noun  to  which  the  adjectival  suffix  is  added 
was  originally  derived  from  a  noun  or  a  verb:  the  case, 
in  the  addition  of  the  last  suffix  is  simply  that  of  changing 
a  noun  into  an  adjective.  When  the  word  to  which  this 
suffix  is  added  is  an  adjective,  the  suffix,  if  -ET,  as  it 
practically  always  is,  has  diminutive  force;  if  any  other 
suffix,  it  is  without  force.  -ET,  here,  as  when  used  singly, 
is  thus  the  only  adjectival  suffix  that  kept  its  original  force 
when  added  to  adjectives. 

1.  The  word  to  which  the  last  suffix  is  added  being  a 
noun. — 


artilhos,  clever,  skilful 
beltados,  beautiful 
cartaironal,'-  of  a  quadroon 
cavalairos,  chivalrous 
cavaleiral,^  of  a  knight 
coratjan     i 

coratjat      rtx)urageous 
coratjos      ) 
ferezos,  cruel 
fizansos,^  assured 
frachuros,  miserable,  needy 


artilha,  fortification 
beltat,  beauty 
cairtairon,  quadroon 

cavalier,  knight 


coratge,  courage 

fereza,  fear,  horror 
fizansa,  trust 
frachura,  lack 


art,  art 

hel,  beautiful 

cart,  quarter 

caval,  horse 

cor,  heart 

fer,  savage 
fizar,  trust 
fracha,  loss 


'Really  a  triple  suffix — compound  suffix +suffix. 

2  -EIRAL  for  -AIRAL,  the  former  apparently  being  due  to  a  back- 
ward influence  of  cavalier,  on  which  the  word  was  formed,  probably  late. 
There  is  a  form  primeiran  as  well  as  primairan  given  below  (p.  402),  and 
due  to  primier. 

'  Here  the  noun  on  which  the  adjective  is  finally  formed  is  based  on  a 
verb. 


Double  Suffixes 


387 


frejuros,  cold  (adj.) 

guinhonut,^  bewhiskered 

linhatjal,       inherited       from 

one's  ancestors 

mortales      ]  .    ,     .       ., 

>  mortal,  deadly 
mortaher    ) 

mulatin,  of  a  mule 
pezansos,^  sad 

pigasat,  spotted 
porcelier,  pig-breeding 
sobransier,^  proud 


frejura,  cold  (noun) 
guinhon,  whiskers 
linhatge,  lineage 

mortal,  mortal 
mulat,  mule 
pezansa,  care 

pigasa,  axe 
parcel,  pig 
sobransa,  pride 


freg,  cold 
{guinhar,  wink  ?) 
linha,  line 

mort,  death 
mul,  mule 
pezar,    weigh, 

think 
pic,  pickaxe 
pore,  pig 
sobrar,    conquer, 

overcome 


2.  The  word  to  which  the  last  suffix  is  added  being  an 
adjective. — Next  come  the  suffixes  added  to  adjectives. 
Here  we  probably  have  to  deal  agaui  with  real  double 
suffixes  rather  than  with  compound  ones,  but  it  is  hard 
to  say  with  any  certainty  that  such  endings  as  -ELET, 
-ELOS,  and  -ONET  were,  never  added  as  one  suffix. 
It  is  possible,  much  more  so,  indeed,  than  was  the  case 
with  the  nouns  of  the  same  kind,  that  they  are  compound 
suffixes,  but  there  are  few  examples  of  any  one  of  them, 
and  the  word  with  the  single  suffix  persists;  whereas  if 
-ELET,  in  particular,  had  been  understood  as  a  single 
suffix,  the  word  in  -EL  would  have  been  likely  to  dis- 
appear.^  The  adjectives  formed  on  adjectives  will 
therefore  be  given  here  under  the  real  double  suffixes: 


amorozet,  (somewhat)  loving 

cortezet,  courtly 

falbelet,  slightly  pale 

falbelos,  pale 

fortalet,'  somewhat  strong 


amoros,  loving 
cortes,  courtly 

■falbel,  pale,  fallow 


amor,  love 
cort,  court 

falb,  pale,  fallow 

fort,  strong 


1  Here  the  noun  oia  which  the  adjective  is  finally  formed  is  based  on 
a  verb. 

2  Especially  true,  however,  of  the  cases  in  which  -EL  was  added  to 
nouns.  In  most  of  the  cases  given,  the  base-word  as  well  as  the  one 
with  a  single  suffix  is  an  adjective. 

'  A  peculiar  form.  Fortalet  appears  to  be  made  up  of  -ET  added  to 
*fortal,  which  may  have  been  supposed  to  exist  in  for taleza,  i.e.,  fortal  + 
-EZA  instead  ol  fort -\-aleza.  Fresquenet  (p.  388)  may  possibly  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  frescalet,  frescal  being  found. 


388  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 


fresquenel,^    (beside  fresquet). 

fresc,  fresh 

fresh 

ginhozet,  fine,  slender  (?) 

ginhos,  fine  (  ?) 

ginh,  artifice 

grizonet  (beside  grizet),  some- 

grizon, gray 

gris,  gray 

what  gray 

novelet,  rather  new 

novel,  new 

nou,  new 

primairal,^-f  principal 

primier,  first 

prim,  first 

///.  Verbs. — The  verbal  double  suffixes  give  little 
difficulty.  The  second  or  verbal  suffix  simply  changes 
the  noun  or  adjective  already  having  a  single  suffix  into 
a  verb.  The  verbal  suffix  itself,  however,  may  be  simple 
or  compound.  The  only  simple  ones  are  -AR  and  -IR, 
the  conjugation  endings;  the  compound  ones — ^ALHAR, 
-ASAR,  -EJAR,  -EZIR,  etc.— have  already  been  fully 
treated  in  the  chapter  on  ordinary  verbal  suffixes.  So 
important  a  part  of  the  formation  of  verbs  have  they 
become  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  reserve  their 
treatment  to  the  chapter  on  double  suffixes.  All  that 
remains  to  be  given,  therefore,  is  the  list  of  words  ending 
in  a  suffix,  which  add  -AR  and  -IR  in  order  to  become 
verbs.   -AR  is  found  added  to  nouns  and  -IR  to  adjectives. 

-AR  is  found  in:  aposturar,  damnatjar,  drechurar, 
flautelar,  fornatjar,  fornilhar,  frachurar,  frontadar,  furetar, 
furonar,  laidenjar,  lauzenjar,  medalhonar,  ostalar,  ostatjar, 
peatjar,  pedasar,  personatjar,  pomelar,  pontelar,  porcelar, 
romansar,  sobransar,  soldadar,  and  valadar. 

-IR  is  found  in  orgolhozir. 

B.      COMPOUND    SUFFIXES 

We  now  reach  the  second  class  into  which  the  double 
suffixes  have  been  divided— the  compound  suffixes. 
The  origin  and  development  of  suffixes  of  this  kind  have 
been  explained  by  Thomas  in  his  article  on  the  suffix 

»  See  note  3,  p.  387. 

'  Found  also  as  primairan  under  compound  suffixes,  p.  402. 

t  Fatonier,  crazy,  is  similar  in  formation  to  glotonia  and  leconia 
treated  above. 


Double  Suffixes  389 

-ARICIUS.^  As  an  illustration  of  the  birth  of  suffixes 
of  this  class,  Thomas  takes  the  word  natalicius.  First, 
derived  from  the  past  participle  natus,  we  find  the  adjec- 
tive natalis,  natal,  and  from  this  word,  used  substantively 
in  the  sense  of  "birthday,"  is  derived  the  adjective 
natalicius,  pertaining  to  one's  birthday.  Then  the  con- 
nection of  this  word  with  natus  and  its  resemblance  to 
it  brings  about  the  supposition  that  it  was  formed  on  it 
by  means  of  the  suffix  -ALICIUS  rather  than  on  the  less 
usual  natalis.  This,  then,  is  an  example  of  the  growth  of 
compound  suffixes  in  Latin:  the  whole  development  is 
complete.  Yet  also  in  Latin,  we  may  find  the  compound 
suffix  in  full  bloom,  without  any  intermediate  stage  in 
view,  as  in  gentilicius  for  example,  formed — as  its  meaning 
proves — on  gens  and  not  on  gentilis,  and  in  sigiUaricium, 
clearly  formed,  in  one  example,  on  sigillum.  -ARICIUS, 
or  -ALICIUS,  was,  therefore,  added  as  a  simple  suffix, 
just  as  -ICIUS,  for  example,  to  the  simple  word. 

Now,  there  are  several  types  of  compound  suffixes 
in  Provengal.  -AREZA,  found  in  a  few  words,  is  from 
-ARICIUS,  -A,  mentioned  above.  -ARIA  (-ARIUS+ 
-lA)  is,  of  course,  likwise  really  a  compound  suffix,  but  as 
it  was  formed  so  very  early  as  to  be  practically  a  simple 
suffix  in  Latin,  it  has  been  treated  as  a  simple  suffix  and 
given  with  these.  Yet  -ARIUS,  the  first  part  of  this 
suffix,  seems  to  have  been  peculiarly  suited  to  the  super- 
position of  other  suffixes.-  It  sometimes  merely  changed 
a  noun  into  an  adjective,  and  often  was  added  to  both 
nouns  and  adjectives  without  changing  their  meaning. 
This  may  account  for  the  list  of  compound  suffixes  formed 
on  -ARIUS — AIRADA,  -AIRAL,  -AIRET,  -AIRIA, 
-AIROL,  -AIRON,  and,  strangest  of  all,  -AIRIER,    in 

1  i\^ouv.  Ess.,  62.  2  See  p.  381,  note,  above. 


390  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

which  -ARIUS,  -UM  is  twice  represented.  It  will  at 
once  be  observed,  of  course,  that  in  all  these  words, 
-ARIUS  has  the  form  -AIR,  its  phonetic  development, 
instead  of  -lER,  the  form  it  has  when  used  alone.  The 
difference  seems  to  be  one  of  accent.  When  used  alone, 
-ARIUS  bore  the  accent  and  seems  to  have  undergone 
foreign  influences  by  which  it  became  -lER,^  but  with 
other  suffixes  attached,  it  did  not  bear  the  accent,  and 
simply  developed  phonetically.  These  suffix-combinations 
were  probably  first  formed,  therefore,  after  the  y  element 
of  -ARIUS  had  begun  to  influence  the  preceding  vowel, 
but  before  the  foreign  influences  were  exerted.  In  some 
cases,  the  word  in  -lER  exists  beside  the  word  ending 
in  -AIR+suffix,  but  the  connection  between  the  two  was 
probably  forgotten.  Sestier  exists  beside  sestairada  and 
sestairal,  and  these  two  last  words  may  have  been  formed 
on  it,  but  the  existence  of  sest  probably  caused  that 
more  usual  word  to  be  taken  as  their  base.  Thus  may 
have  come  about  such  words  as  capairon  and  golairon. 
The  case  is  the  same  as  that  of  natalicius. 

The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  double  suffixes  beginning 
with  -ADA  or  -AT  attached  to  verb-stems.  In  these 
cases,  -ADA  and  -AT  often  had  no  very  clear  force,  and 
as  -lER  w^as  often  added  to  them,  possibly  because  of  an 
earlier  use  with  the  words  formed  on  nouns  by  these 
suffixes,  there  arose  the  compound  suffix  -ADIER  or 
-ATIER,  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  The  verbal  suffix 
-ANDA  also  combined  with  -lER  in  the  same  way. 

A  nominal  suffix  that  combined  with  -lER  very  fre- 
quently is  -AS,  which  sometimes  had  no  very  clear  force, 
though  generally  augmentative.  The  combination  is 
perhaps  common  enough  to  be  treated  as  a  compound 
suffix  (-ASIER),  particularly  as  the  intermediate  word  in 
»  See  p.  208,  above. 


Double  Suffixes  391 

-AS  is  often  not  to  be  found.     -AS  sometimes  combines 
with  other  final  suffixes  also. 

-EL  is  another  suffix  which  was  very  frequently  com- 
bined with  other  suffixes,  particularly  -ET,  the  ending 
-ELET  being  of  common  occurrence  in  Provengal.  Yet 
in  spite  of  its  frequency,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  was 
a  real  compound  suffix  added  at  once  to  the  simple  word. 
-EL  has  already  been  treated  as  a  single  suffix,^  and  it 
has  been  shown  that  when  added  in  Latin,  it  gave  very 
little  force  of  any  kind  to  words  to  which  it  was  attached, 
which  simple  words,  being  so  nearly  like  the  derived  ones, 
tended  to  disappear  in  favor  of  the  word  with  the  suffix. 
We  find,  therefore,  few  groups  of  words  containing  the 
simple  word  as  well  as  the  one  endmg  in  -EL  and  the  one 
in  -ELET.  If,  therefore,  the  simple  word  disappeared 
very  early,  so  shortly  after  a  word  ending  m  -EL  had  been 
formed  on  it,  there  was  nothing  left  to  which  a  compound 
suffix  -ELET  could  be  added.  The  words  ending  in  -EL 
were  thought  of  as  simple  words,  and  a  new  suffix  -ET  w^as 
added.  The  persistence  of  the  simple  word,  in  a  number 
of  cases,  rather  than  that  of  the  word  with  the  single  suffix, 
would  seem  to  be  a  necessary  requirement  to  bring  about 
the  addition  of  compound  suffixes.  As  illustrative  of 
this  point,  a  word  containing  -ARIUS  may  be  compared 
and  contrasted  with  the  words  in  -EL.  Beside  cartairada, 
for  example,  cart,  as  well  as  earlier  (quartarius)  still  per- 
sists, and  gives  a  good  starting-point  for  words  having  the 
compound  suffix  -AIRADA.  It  is  only  in  a  few  cases  that 
the  simple  word  to  which  -ARIUS  was  added  has  dis- 
appeared.- 

1  See  p.  171,  above. 

2  One  of  these  words  is  denier  (<denarius) ,  which  exists  beside 
denairada,  denairal,  and  denairet.  Here,  as  mentioned  above  (p.  382, 
note),  we  have  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  single  suffix. 


392  Word-Formation  in  PnovENgAL 

For  these  reasons,  therefore,  -ELET  and  the  other 
apparent  compomid  suffixes  beginnmg  with  -EL,  such  as 
-ELON,  can  hardly  be  considered  as  such,  but  for  con- 
venience, the  words  in  -ELET  will  be  given  here.  The 
only  words  in  -ELET  beside  which  a  simple  word  is 
found  are:  capelet,  crespelet,  gantelet,  and  tropelet,  and  in 
the  case  of  gantelet,  it  is  the  simple  word  instead  of  the 
word  in  -EL  that  is  found,  whereas  in  the  other  cases, 
both  persist.  The  persistence  of  both  cap  and  capel 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  there  was  a  real  difference 
in  meaning  between  the  two  words.  Crespel  is  an  adjec- 
tive formed  on  an  adjective,  and  in  such  cases  the  simple 
word  generally  persists,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  does 
not  differ  in  meaning  from  the  derived  one.  Tropel 
is  formed  on  a  word  of  Germanic  origin,  and  is  therefore 
a  later  formation  than  most  of  the  words  in  -EL.  This 
is  likewise  true  of  *gantel.  Both  gantelet  and  tropelet 
are  probably  borrowed  from  French,  but  gantelet  was 
probably  borrowed  direct,  whereas  the  suffix  -ET  may 
have  been  added  in  Provengal  to  the  French  loan-word 
tropel.'\ 

The  lists  of  words  ending  in  compound  suffixes  will 
now  be  given.  The  suffixes  will  be  dealt  with  in  alpha- 
betical order,  complete  lists  of  words  being  given  under 
each  heading.  As  with  the  real  double  suffixes,  the  nouns 
will  be  given  first,  then  the  adjectives,  and  finally  the 
verbs. 


t  The  other  words  in  -ELET  are  formed  on  words  in  -EL  existing  in 
Lat. ;  therefore  it  is  natural  to  find  no  simple  word  in  Pro  v.,  -ET  alone 
being  added  here.  Such  words  are  anelet,  anhelet,  auzelet,  cairelet, 
castelet,  donselet,  martelet  (ponselet,  porcelet,  p.  384),  and  vaiselet.  In  the 
same  way,  anhelon,  auzelit,  etc.,  have  only  single  suffixes  added  to  words 
which  in  Lat.  had  -ELLUS.  Escudelier,  escudeloti,  and  gonelon  are  either 
to  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  or  else  contain  real  double  suffixes,  under 
which  head  they  have  already  been  listed.     See  p.  383,  above. 


Double  Suffixes  393 

/.  Nouns 

-ADiER  (-idier),  -atier;    -adaria,  -ataria 

The  first  compound  suffix  to  be  treated  is  -ADIER 

(-IDIER),    found     also     as    -ATIER.      However     this 

combination    of    single    suffixes    may    have    originated/ 

there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  two  finally  were  added 

as  a  single  suffix  to  the  simple  word.     Their  very  number, 

as  well  as  many  other  reasons,  tends  to  prove  this.     Most 

of  the  words  given  in  Raynouard  end  in  -ADIER,  whereas 

the  list  given  by  Thomas-  has  -ATIER.     The  words  in 

-ADIER  will  be  given  first : 

coladier,  porter  (also  an  adjective)  col,  neck 

dauradier,  goldsmith  daurar,  gild 

filadier,^  spinner  filar,  spin 

frontadier,  neighbor  fron{t),  front 

fmnadiera,  puff  of  smoke  /nm  or  fumar,  smoke 

logadier,  hired  workman;    lodger  logar,  let,  hire 

ponhadiera,  kind  of  a  measure  ponh,  fist 

portadiera,  litter  portar,  carry 

soldadier,  f  soldier  soldar,  pay 

'  For  a  full  treatment  of  this  suffix,  see  -ADIER  under  the  simple 
suffix  -lER,  p.  218,  above. 

2  Nouv.  Ess.,  23.3.  3  See  also  filatier,  p.  395,  below. 


t  Words  of  this  kind  have  been  studied  under  clamatier,  on  p.  218, 
above,  where  their  formation  was  fully  treated.  Forms  in  -ADA  exist 
beside  those  in  -ADIER  in  all  of  the  above  cases  except  dauradier  and 
portadiera  (thus  colada,  filada,  frontada,  fumada,  logada,  ponhada,  and  sol- 
dada),  so  that  -lER  may  have  been  added  separately  in  each  individual 
case.  But  the  number  of  cases,  together  with  the  fact  that  in  most  of 
them  the  meaning  seems  to  indicate  a  formation  on  the  simple  word, 
causes  them  to  be  treated  as  compound  suffixes.  A  word  in  -ADIER  in 
which  the  -lER  was  added  separately  is  mainadier,  head  of  a  family, 
from  mainada,  family,  probably  formed  in  Lat.  No  simple  word  is  found 
in  Prov.  Another  word  having  -ADIER  not  added  as  a  single  suffix  is 
hugadier,  wash-basin  (which  is  also  an  adjective  meaning  "for  washing"). 
This  word  is  formed  on  bugada,  wash,  which  in  turn  possibly  is  derived 
from  *bugar,  wash  (cf.  the  Fr.  buer).  A  word  in  which  -.\RIA  is  sub- 
stituted for  -lER,  giving  the  compound  suffix  -ADARIA  is  logadaria, 
letting,  hiring. 


394  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

One  word  in  -IDIER  instead  of  -ADIER  is  found — 
poiridier,  rottenness.^ 

Thomas'  list  of  words  in  -ATIER,  which  is  nearly 
complete,  has  already  been  given.^  These  words,  with  the 
exceptions  of  filatier  and  granatier,^  are  not  in  Ra\Tiouard 
or  Levy.  With  the  exception  of  corratier,  broker  (given 
by  Thomas,  Nouv.  Ess.,  233,  as  coratier,  and  not  fomid 
elsewhere)  which  appears  to  be  formed  on  corre,  to  rmi 
(compare  the  French  courtier),  and  beside  which  should 
be  mentioned  the  further  formations  corratairia  and 
corratatge,  they  all  appear  to  be  formed  on  nouns,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  list.  Beside  a  few  of  the  words,  such  as 
causatier  and  filatier,  are  found  verbs  from  which  they 
might  have  been  derived,  but  all  the  other  words  could 
have  been  derived  only  from  nouns.  This  fact  distin- 
guishes them  from  the  words  ending  in  -ADIER,  which 
could  have  been  formed  on  either  noun  or  verb.  The 
words  in  -ATIER,  or  those  in  which  the  suffix  was  clearly 
added  to  nouns,  may  have  been  influenced  in  their  form 
by  the  number  of  words  denoting  the  young  of  animals 
that  ended  in  -AT.  There  were  a  good  many  of  these, 
although  in  the  list  given  below  there  are  only  two  words 
of  this  kind,  namely  lobat,  young  wolf,  derived  from  loha, 
wolf,  and  mulat,  mule,  derived  from  mid.  By  analogy 
with  these  words,  in  which  -ATIER  may  have  been  sup- 
posed to  have  been  added  to  loba  and  7nul  (instead  of 
-lER  to  lohat  and  mulat),  other  words  in  which  -ATIER  is 
joined  to  names  of  animals  may  have  been  formed,  as,  for 

'  For  formation,  see  p.  229,  n.  3,  above. 

2  P.  219,  above.  The  list  ran  as  follows:  boscatier,  bovatier,  causatier, 
coratier,  degatier,  egatier,  filatier,  granatier,  lobatier,  mulatier,  orsatier, 
panatier,  pelatier,  porcatier,  telatier. 

'  Beside  which  the  formation  granataria,  similar  to  logadaria  men- 
tioned above  (p.  39.3,  n.  f). 


Double  Suffixes  395 

example,  orsatier  (ors +-ATIER  instead  of  *orsaf +-IER). 
The  complete  list  of  words  in  which  the  compound  suffix 
-ATIER  is  found  is  as  follows: 

boscatier,  woodsman  (?)  bosc,  woods 

bovatier,  oxherd  boti,  ox 

causalier,  shoemaker  causa,  shoe 

clamatier,^  complainant  clam  or  claniar,  complain 

coiratier,  tanner  cor,  leather 

corratier,^  broker  corre,  run 

degatier,  country  constable  dec,  boundary 

egatier,  one  who  tends  mares  ega,  mare 

''filatier,  weaver  fil,  thread,  or  filar,  spin 

granatier,  grain  dealer  gran,  grain 

lobatier,  one  in  charge  of  young  (lobat,  young  wolf)  loba,  wolf 

wolves  ( ?) 

mulatier,  muleteer  {mulat,  mule)  7nul,  mule 

orsatier,  one  in  charge  of  young  ors,  bear 

bears  ( ?) 

panaiier,  baker  pan,  bread 

pelatier,  furrier  pel,  skin 

pescatier,^  fisherman  pesca,  fishing 

porcatier,  pork  butcher  pore,  pig 

telatier,  cloth  merchant  tela,  cloth 

vacatierf^li  cowherd  vaca,  cow 

-ATARIA  is  also  found  as  a  compound  suffix,  and 

joined  to  the  same  base-words  that  added  -ATIER.     Thus 

we  find: 

corrataria,  brokerage  corre,  to  run 

ferrataria,-  iron  business  {ferrat,  iron  pail)  fer,  iron 

granataria.  grain  business  gran,  grain 

pana^ari'a,  bakery,  bread-room  pa ?;,  bread 

-ALES    (-ALEZa),    -ares    (-AREZA) 

AVe  now  come  to  the  compound  suffixes  -ALES  and 
-ARES,  from  the  Latin  -ALICIUS  and  -ARICIUS,  the 

'  Not  in  the  list  given  by  Thomas  in  Nouv.  Ess.,  233. 
2  See  also  the  list  of  real  double  suffixes,  p.  383. 


t  Another  word  ending  in  -ATIER  (ferratier)  is  given  under  the 
real  double  suffixes,  p.  383.  Fr.  words  corresponding  to  words  in  this  list 
are  chaussetier,  courtier,  muletier,  panetier,  and  pelletier. 


396  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

formation  of  which  has  .been  described  above  as  an  example 
of  the  compomid  suffix.  -ALICIUS  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  very  common  use  in  Provengah  It  seems  to 
be  found  only  in  its  feminine  form,  -ALEZA.  Probably 
the  only  examples  are: 

franealeza     (or    -ESA?),     (1)      {francal,  tree)  franc,  free 

freehold   property   (?),   or 

(2)  freedom  from  taxes  ( ?) 
fortaleza  (or -ESA  ?),  strong-  /or<,  strong 

hold  (fortareza  also  exists) 
moltaleza,  abundance  molt,  much 

ortaleza-\  (or -ESA  ?),  a  vege-     (ortal,  garden)  ort,  garden 

table 

The  meanings  of  these  words,  except  moltaleza,  are 
such  as  would  come  from  -ALICIA  and  not  -ALITIA, 
yet  the  forms  are  such  as  would  come  from  the  latter 
suffix.  There  seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of  confusion  in  the 
spelling  of  the  words,  however.  Thus  Thomas,  in  his 
list  of  words  coming  from  -ARICIA,  in  his  article  on 
-ARICIUS,^  spells  all  the  Provengal  ones  with  the  ending 
-AREZA,  although  cij  regularly  gives  s  and  not  z  in  Pro- 
vengal.  Thomas  mentions  a  confusion  of  -ARICIUS  with 
-ISSA  in  some  words  denoting  occupations  of  women,  but 
he  says  nothing  of  a  confusion  with  -ITIA,  which  has 
already  been  shown  to  have  existed,  and  which  alone  can 
explain  the  forms  in  -AREZA.  This  form,  with  -AREZ 
for  the  masculine  words,  appears,  however,  to  be  a  kind 
of  heading  under  which  to  place  the  Provengal  words. 
For  example,  he  gives  the  name  Chaumaresse  under  the 
heading  calmareza,  and  cites  from  Rajmouard  the  phrase 
arhalesias    crocaressas,    which    he    puts    under    crocarez.^ 

>  Noui\  Ess.,  62. 

2  Also  many  other  cases,  as  vinhares,  spelled  this  way  in  Thomas' 
example,  but  placed  by  him  under  the  heading  vinharez. 


t  A  word  of  different  form  in  Prov.,  but  representing  -ALICIUS,  is 
mortalici,  funeral  service  (  ?). 


Double  Suffixes  397 

Practically  all  of  the  words  in  Thomas'  lists  indicate 
place,  and  none  of  them  are  abstract.  -ITIA  cannot, 
therefore,  be  their  source,  but  confusion  with  it  may 
account  for  the  z  in  such  words  as  have  it.  Most  of  the 
words,  doubtless,  are  only  adjectives  used  substantively, 
and  all  but  a  very  few  are  proper  names.  The  few 
common  nouns  ending  in  -ARES,  -AREZA,  but  spelled 
as  Thomas  gives  them,  are: 

(1)  Masculine  Nouns: 

bocarez,  a  variety  of  black  grape         hoc.  buck  (source  according  to 

Thomas) 
cahrarez,  a  bird  that  sucks  milk 

from  goats  cabra,  goat 

vinharez,  vineyard  vinha,  vine 

and  on  a  verb-stem  we  find: 

partarez,  fan  instrument  for  cutting    partir,  divide 

(2)  Feminine  Nouns: 

bovareza,  ox  path  bou,  ox 

fortareza    (as   well    as  fortaleza)      fort,  strong 

fortress 
porcareza,  piggery  pore,  pig 

secareza,^  dry  place  sec,  dry 

and  also,  spelled  with  e  instead  of  a,  we  find: 

/ronieresa,  1 1  boundary    (frontiera,    front,  front 
boundary,  is  also  found) 

'  Cf.  the  Mod.  Fr.  secheresse,  which  has  come  to  have  abstract  force. 


t  In  all  of  these  cases,  the  original  adjectival  force  is  clear.  The 
proper  names  are  as  follows:  bezarez,  place  where  there  are  birches  (?) 
figarez,  place  where  there  are  fig  trees;  lobarez,  place  where  there  are 
wolves  (  ?)  vacarez,  place  for  cows. 

tt  Nouv.  Ess. ,  69.  The  proper  names  ending  in  -AREZA  are  as  follows : 
bezareza,  place  having  birches  (cf .  bezarez) ;  boscareza,  place  covered  with 
bushes;  cabrareza,  place  where  goats  are;  calmareza,  place  with  untilled 
land;  ivernareza,  place  having  hard  winters;  lohareza,  place  where  wolves 
are;  rodareza,  place  where  wheels  are  made;  and  vacareza,  place  for  cows. 
(These  words,  and  also  the  ones  given  in  the  note  on  the  preceding  list, 
being  given  with  their  original  meanings  as  common  nouns,  are  not  spelled 
with  capitals.) 


398  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

The  e  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  hypothesis  that  this  was 
formed  on  frontera  and  not  on 
front  by  the  addition  of  -AREZA, 
making  really  a  triplex  suffix. 
The  -AR  might  hav^e  disappeared 
by  a  syllabic  superposition. 

-AIRADA,    -AIRAL,    -AIRATGE,    -AIRET,    -AIRIA,    -AIRIER, 
-AIROL,    -AIRON 

The  next  group  of  words,  in  alphabetic  order,  is  that 
in  which  the  first  suffix,  from  the  Latin  -ARIUS,  is  repre- 
sented in  Provengal  by  -AIR-.     Here  we  find  that 

-AIRADA  is  found  in: 


cartairada,  a  grain  measure 

{earlier,  quarter) 

cart,  quarter 

denairada,  pennyworth 

denier,  penny 

figairada,  flg  tree 

(figuier,  fig  tree) 

figa,  flg 

porcairada,  herd  of  swine 

{porgziier,  swineherd) 

pore,  pig 

sestairada,      a     measure     of 

{sestier,  a  measure) 

sest,  sixth 

length 

-AIRAL^  is  found  in 

denairal,  pennyworth 

denier,  penny 

menestairal,  workman 

(menestier,  service) 

menistre,  servant 

sestairal,   a  measiu-e  of  ca- 

{sestier, a  measure) 

sest,  sixth 

pacity 

-AIRATGE  is  found 

[in: 

bandairatge,^  right  of  pastur- 

{handier,  country  con- 

banda, ban 

ing 

stable) 

-AIRETisfoundin: 

carraireta,  alley 

{carriera,  way) 

car,  cart 

culhairet,  small  spoonful 

culhier,  spoon 

denairet,  small  penny 

denier,  penny 

gorgaireta,  gorget 

{gorgiera,  gorget) 

gorga,  throat 

mercadairet,  small  merchant 

{mercadier,  merchant) 

mercat,  market 

The  words  ending  in  -AIRIA  have  been  given  under 
-ARIA,  which,  on  account  of  its  very  early  formation, 

'  For  two  nouns  in  -ARAL  (agraral  and  fumaral)  see  the  simple 
nominal  suffix  -AL  (pp.  64-66),  and  for  three  adjectives  with  this  end- 
ing (agraral,  boaral,  and  diaral),  see  the  simple  adjectival  suffix  -AL 
(pp.  287-88)  and  the  compound  adjectival  suffix  -ARAL  (p.  402). 

•  Also  found  as  bandeiratge. 


Double  Suffixes 


399 


has  been  treated  as  a  single  suffix.     -AIRIA,  as  has  been 
remarked,  is  only  a  variation  of  -ARIA,  and  the  words 
with  this  ending  have,  therefore,  no  place  here. 
-AIRIER  is  found  in: 


bandairier,  standard  bearer 
carrairier,     city     officer     in 

charge  of  the  streets 
ensenhairier,  standard  bearer 
fumeriera,t  dunghill 

-AIROL  is  found  in: 

blavairol,  bruise 
carnairol,  gamebag 
carrairola,  little  street,  alley 
milhairola,       measure       for 

liquids 
poslairol,  hinder  part 
Tatairol,-\]  small  falcon 

-AIRON  is  found  in : 

capairon,  little  hat 
cartairon,  quadroon 
fogairon,  hearth;      small  fire 
garhairon,  heap  of  sheaves 

golairon,  throat 
gravairon,  sandy  place 
lebrairon,  small  greyhoimd 
mercadairon,  small  merchant 
molnairon,  miller's  boy 
salsairon,]\\  sauce-dish 


(bandiera,  banner) 
{carriera,  road) 

{ensenhiera,  banner) 


{carnier,  charnel-house) 
{carriera,  street) 
(milkier,  thousand) 


(raiier,  rat-trap) 


(earlier,  quarter) 
(foguier,  hearth) 
(garbier,       cart      for 
sheaves) 

(gravier,  beach) 
(lebrier,  greyhound) 
(mercadier,  merchant) 
(molinier,  miller) 


banda,  flag 
car,  cart 

ensenha,  ensign 
fern,  manure 


blau,  bhie 
cam,  flesh 
car,  cart 
mil,  thousand 

post,  behind 
rat,  rat 


cap,  head 
cart,  quarter 
foe,  fire 
garba,  sheaf 

gola,  throat 
grava,  sand 
lebra,  hare 
mereat,  market 
molin,  mill 
salsa,  sauce 


-ALIER,    -ALATGE 

The  suffix  -AL  is  found  sometimes  with  -lER  and 
w^th  -ATGE  attached  to  it,  forming  finally  the  probable 

t  A  word  obscure  in  formation  is  pechairier,  tinsmith.  Pechairier 
may  be  from  *pechier,  pitcher  (of  metal)  <picarium.     Cf.  the  Fr.  picher. 

A  word  having  -IRIER  instead  of  -AIRIER  is  pesquirier  (see  p.  384). 

tt  A  word  obscure  in  formation  is  mercairol,  translated  by  Raynouard 
as  "shop,"  but  the  word  is  obscure  in  meaning  as  well  as  in  form. 

ttt  A  word  having  the  spelling  -ERON  instead  of-  AIRON  is  paiseron, 
small  dam,  formed  on  paisiera,  dike. 

In  some  of  the  words  in  -AIROL  and  -AIRON,  -OL  and  -ON  simply 
give  diminutive  force  to  previously  existing  words  ending  in  -lER. 
An  example  of  this  is  mercadairon;  but  in  such  words  as  ratairol  and 
capairon,  and  also  fogairon  in  one  of  its  meanings,  the  whole  compounds 
-AIROL  and  -AIRON  have  this  force. 


400  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

compound  suffixes  -ALIER  and  -ALATGE.     Barralier, 

formed  on  barral,  but  existing  l)eside  barra,  and  cazalatge 

formed  on  cazal,  but  existing  beside  caza,  may  be  taken 

as  possible  starting-points  for  the  compound  suffixes. 

-ALIER  is  found  in: 

coi'dalier,  ropcmakcr  corda,  rope 

peiralier,  mason  peirn,  stone 

-ALATGE  is  found  in: 

carnalalge,  charnel-house  (^carnal,  carnal)  cam,  flesh 

fornalatge,  oven-tax  font,  oven 

mortalatge,  legacy  {mortal,  deadly)  mart,  death 

-ALHON 

Tlie  suffixes  -ALH  and  -ILH  are  often  found  with 
other  suffixes  attached  to  them,  -ALHIER  and  -ILHIER 
being  frequently  found.  These  combinations  do  not, 
however,  ever  appear  to  have  been  added  as  a  single  suffix. 
The  combination  -ALHON,  on  the  other  hand,  may  have 
had  this  use.     It  is  found  in: 

Tnoralhon,  clasp  muralha,  clasp 

moscalhon,  gnat,  small  fly  mosca,  fly 

-ANDIER,    -ENDIER 

The  suffix  -lER  is  often  found  attached  to  the  verbal 

endings  -ANDA  and  -ENDA,  thus  forming  the  compound 

suffixes    -ANDIER    and    -ENDIER.     The    words    in 

-ANDIER  are: 

estivandier,  harvester  estivar,  harvest 

lavandiera,  laundress  lavar,  wash 

logandier,  lodger  (see  also  logadier)  logar,  lodge 

pozandier,  drawer  (of  water)  pozar,  draw 

talhandier,  tailor  talhar,  cut 

ieisandier,^  weaver  ieiser,  weave 

1  -ANDIER  where  we  might  expect  -ENDIER.  This  may  Ijo  due 
to  the  analogy  of  the  other  forms,  in  which  -ANDIER  probably  came  to 
be  regarded  as  the  suffix  denoting  the  agent  of  an  action,  to  be  attached 
to  verb-stems. 


Double  Suffixes  401 

-ENDIERisfoundin: 

fazendier,  rural  workman  fazer  (faire),  do,  work 

legendier,  lectionary  legir,  read 

-ARENC 

-AR  (whether  from  -ARIS  or  -ARIUS)  is  found  several 
times  combined  with  -ENC,  forming  the  compound  suffix 
-ARENC.  This  seems  to  have  been  an  adjectival  suffix 
originally.  The  example  given  here  was  undoubtedly  an 
adjective  originally,  and  examples  in  which  it  forms 
an  adjective  will  be  given  later  on  (p.  403).  It  is  found 
forming  a  noun  in: 
mostarenca,  wine  measure  ?nost,  must  (unfermented  wine) 

-ASIER,    -ASARIA,    -ASIL 

Finally,  the  suffix  -AS  is  found  frequently  with  -lER 
and  with  -ARIA  attached  to  it,  and,  more  remarkably, 
with  -IL  also.  Such  a  word  as  canahasier  formed  on 
canabas,  but  existing  beside  canebe,  could  well  have  been 
the  starting-point  for  the  words  in  which  -ASIER  was 
used  as  a  single  suffix. 

-ASIER  is  found  in : 

codrasier,  hoopbinder  codra,  hoop 

dardasier,  archer  dart,  dart 

-ASARIA  is  found  in : 

lanasaria,  woolen  mill  laaa,  wool 

-ASIL  is  found  in: 
fenasil,  haystack  fen,  hay 

-EL,  which  occurs  so  frequently  in  the  combinations 
-ELET,  -ELIER,  and  -ELON,  has  already  been  treated, 
and  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  forming  compound  suffixes.^ 

1  In  daurelier  there  does  seem  to  be  an  example  of  a  compound 
suffix  -ELIER  added  to  the  stem  of  daurar,  but  this  is  probably  the  only 
case.     Other  apparent  combinations  of  suffixes  hard  to  explain  are  seen 


402  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

//.  Adjectives 

There  are  not  many  compound  suffixes  that  are  added 
to  adjectives,  and  most  of  the  ones  that  are  found  have 
been  given  above  as  forming  nouns  also.  The  suffixes 
will  be  given  in  alphabetical  order. 

-ADIER  is  found  in: 

coladier,^  portable  col,  neck 

lechadier,  greedy  lechar,  lick 

logndier,  for  hire  Jognr,  to  hire 

and  the  other  form  of  the  suffix — ATIER — is  found  in: 


clamatier,^  complaining 

clamar,  complain 

-AIRAN  is  found  in: 

estretnairan,  last  (estremier,   last) 
primairan  (also  -eirav?),  first  {pri- 
mier,  first,  is  also  found) 

estrem,  end,  side 
prim,  first 

-ANDIER  is  found  in: 

pastandier,  for  kneading 

paslar,  knead 

-ARAL  is  found  in: 

agraral,  cultivated 
boaral,^  of  oxen,  rough 

agre,  field 
bou,  ox 

diaral,^  daily 

dia,  day 

-AREL 


This  suffix  is  found  only  in  adjectives  and  not  in 
nouns.  It  may  have  been  added  to  nouns  or  to  verb- 
stems.  Probably,  the  suffix  -AR  (<-ARIS)  was  added 
originally  to  nouns,^  making  adjectives,  and  these  were 


in  causinada,  femoras,  and  corsegatz,  which  have  boen  treated  above. 
Panetier,  baker,  existing  beside  pan  and  not  panel  is  probably  a  mis- 
spelling of  panatier,  given  above,  and  the  form  may  be  due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Fr.  panetier. 

I  See  also  under  nouns,  pp.  218  and  393,  above. 

*  See  note  2,  p.  386,  above;   primairal,  of  first  rank,  is  also  found. 
'  See  n.  2,  p.  64;    n.  1,  p.  398. 

*  To  an  adjective  in  coindarel  in  the  list. 


Double  Suffixes  403 

made  diminutive  by  the  addition  of  -EL.     Then  the  word 

ending  in  -AR  disappeared  and  -AREL  was  added  as  a 

single  suffix.     The    case    is,   therefore,   exactly  that  of 

-ARICIUS.     The  examples  follow : 

bufarel,  empty  (full  of  wind)  6m/,  blowing 

cantarel,  always  singing  can(t),  song 

caindarel,  gallant,  vain  coinde,  cultivated 

-ARENC  (or  -ERENC)  is  found  in: 

causerenc,^  of  lime  caus,  lime 

cazarenc,^  of  or   pertaining  to  a 
cheese-basket 

-AREZ  is  added  to  nouns  in  -r 

bastarez,  fit  for  sewing  pack-saddles  bast,  pack-saddle 

cesarez,  paid  in  \irtue  of  the  "cens"  ces,  "  cens,"  a  tax 

crocarez,  provided  with  a  hook  croc,  hook 

draparez,  fit  for  fulling  cloth  drap,  cloth 

vacarez,  where  cows  pass  vaca,  cow 

It  is  added  to  verb-stems  in: 

malharez,  serving  to  full  cloth  nialhar,  hammer 

petarez,  bursting  petar,  burst,  snap 

///.  Verbs 

As  has  been  stated,  the  compound  verbal  suffixes 
-ALHAR,  -ASAR,  -EJAR,  -EZIR,  etc.,  have  already 
been  fully  treated  under  the  simple  verbal  suffixes.^ 

A  compound  suffix  is  seen  in  parasyntheta  in: 

aprimairar,*  go  to  the  front  prim,  first 

enlimairar,^  cover  with  mud  Urn,  mud 

escartairar,^  quarter  cart{ier),  quarter 

1  For  a  discussion  of  these  words,  see  the  adjectival  suffix  -ENC, 
p.  306,  n.  3. 

2  All  of  the  words  given  are  found  in  Thomas,  Nouv.  Ess.,  73-81. 

3  These  suffixes  are  seen  added  to  words  alreadj'  ending  in  suffixes 
in:  coladejar,  fatonejar,  foralejar,  frachurejar,  girbaudonejar,  putanejar, 
valadejar,  and  inventarizar . 

*  See  parasyntheta,  p.  515. 

5  See  parasyntheta,  p.  511,  n.  2,  below. 

*  See  parasyntheta,  p.  513. 


PART  II 
PREFIX-FORMATION 


INTRODUCTORY 

PREFIX-FORMATION  IN  GENERAL 

Since  prefix-formation,  as  it  will  be  treated  here,  is  so 
very  much  like  suffix-formation,  very  few  remarks  on  the 
general  subject  will  now  be  found  necessary.  By  prefix- 
formation  is  meant  the  addition  of  prefixes  to  Provengal 
words,  just  as  by  suffix-formation  was  meant  the  addition 
of  suffixes  to  Provengal  words.  The  essential  point  to 
determine,  in  either  case,  is  not  the  origin  of  suffix  or 
prefix  or  of  base-word,  but  whether  the  joining  of  the  two 
took  place  in  Provengal  times.  In  order  to  be  treated 
here,  this  must  always  be  the  case.  But  as  the  methods 
for  determining  the  time  of  the  formation  of  Provengal 
words,  whether  formed  by  means  of  suffix  or  prefix,  have 
been  described  above,^  they  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

In  some  ways,  however,  the  matter  of  prefixes  is  not 
quite  so  difficult  to  treat  as  that  of  suffixes.  In  the  first 
place,  the  total  number  of  prefixes  is  much  smaller  than 
the  number  of  suffixes,  and,  with  one  or  two  possible 
exceptions,  the  number  of  examples  to  be  given  under 
each  particular  prefix  is  also  considerably  less  than  those 
to  be  given  under  each  individual  suffix.  There  is  also 
another  difference  between  the  two  kinds  of  particles  which 
makes  comparatively  simple  the  treatment  of  prefixes. 
This  is  that  a  prefix  never  made  of  a  word  formed  by 
it  a  different  part  of  speech  than  the  simple  word  to 
which  it  was  joined  had  been,  whereas  a  suffix  almost 
always  modified  the  simple  word  in  such  a  way.  Thus  in 
prefix-formation,  in  treating  newly  formed  verbs,  for 
example,  it  is  unnecessary  to  consider  whether  the  base  is 

»  Part  I,  general  introduction,  p.  4. 
407 


408  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

a  noun  or  adjective,  as  is  essential  in  dealing  with  suffixes. 
The  prefixes  which  we  find  in  Provengal  were  almost 
always  simply  the  Latin  prepositions,  and  their  relation 
to  the  words  to  which  they  were  joined  was  a  syntactical 
one;  whereas  in  the  case  of  suffixes,  the  suffix  seems  to 
have  more  of  the  value  of  an  independent  word  (as  it 
was  originally),  and  could  therefore  modify  the  word  to 
which  it  was  joined. 

Chapters  on  the  different  parts  of  speech  formed  by 
prefixes  will  now  follow  in  the  order  of  their  importance: 
first  the  verb,  then  the  noun,  and  finally  the  adjective. 
Under  each  of  these  larger  divisions,  each  individual  pre- 
fix will  be  studied  in  alphabetic  order.  In  the  chapter 
on  verbs,  the  formations  ending  in  -ar  will  be  given  first 
in  treating  each  prefix,  then  will  follow  the  verbs  with 
each  of  the  other  conjugation-endings.  After  the  three 
chapters  dealing  with  the  different  parts  of  speech  formed 
by  the  addition  of  single  prefixes,  all  the  words  formed  by 
using  two  or  more  prefixes  will  be  studied  in  a  separate 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  I 

FORMATION  OF  VERBS 

The  verb,  being  the  largest  and  most  important  part 
of  the  whole  matter  of  prefix-formation,  will  be  treated 
first,  and  will  be  followed  by  the  shorter  chapters  on 
nouns  and  adjectives.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  verb, 
however,  comparatively  little  comment  is  necessary,  as 
prefixes  almost  always  retained  the  force  which  they  had 
in  Latin  as  prepositions.  When  there  was  any  change 
at  all  in  meaning,  this  was  simply  a  Aveakening  of  the  force 
of  the  prefix,  leaving  the  new  word  formed  by  it  practically 
the  same  in  meaning  as  the  simple  word. 

It  may  be  well,  nevertheless,  to  examine  a  little  more 
closely  this  loss  of  force  seen  in  verbal  prefixes,  and, 
incidentally,  the  relations  of  the  various  prefixes  with 
each  other.  In  the  less  common  prefixes,  this  loss  of 
force  is  unusual:  ENTRE-,  FOR-,  MES-,  OLTRA-, 
PER-,  PRO-,  SOBRE-,  SOTZ-,  and  TRAS-  have  almost 
always  the  same  force  as  the  Latin  prepositions  from 
which  they  are  descended.  Other  prefixes,  however,  as 
CONTRA-,  DE-,  DES-,  and  RE-,  are  frequently  seen 
to  be  without  force;  and  for  still  others,  as  A-,  EN-,  and 
ES-,  the  forceless  use  is  the  commonest  one.  In  the  case 
of  A-  and  EN-,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  real  loss  of 
force  in  Provengal,  since  the  Latin  AD-  and  IN-  as  pre- 
fixes were  vague  in  meaning,  and  contributed  little  to  the 
words  to  which  they  were  attached.  The  lack  of  meaning 
seen  in  ES-,  on  the  other  hand,  represents  a  loss  of  force, 
which  is,  moreover,  seen  in  most  of  the  other  prefixes, 
although  not  so  frequently.  In  some  cases,  this  loss  of 
force  may  be  explained  by  the  vague  meaning  which  the 

409 


410  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

j)refix  originally  had/  or  its  fine  distinctions,  as  in  the  case 
of  RE-,  which  would  be  imperceptible  to  the  popular  mind; 
in  other  cases,  it  may  have  been  clue  to  the  use  of  the 
prefix  with  a  word  which  had  already  the  force  of  that 
particular  prefix.  An  example  of  this  is  the  use  of  DES-, 
meaning  "out  of,"  "from,"  with  the  verb  sebrar,  meaning 
"to  separate."  In  such  an  example,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  prefix  to  have  any  real  force,  and  the  word  serves 
as  a  starting-point  for  the  use  of  DES-  in  other  words 
without  force. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  compare  the  uses  of  some  of  the 
more  important  prefixes.  Thus  DES-  and  ES-,  already 
mentioned,  both  meant,  originallj^  "out  of,"  "away 
from,"  and  consequently  "away  from"  the  action  of  the 
verb  to  which  they  were  attached.  Both  of  them  thus 
acquired  negative  force,  which  is,  however,  more  usual  in 
DES-,  the  regular  negative  prefix,  than  in  ES-.  The 
latter,  possibly  from  the  idea  of  movement  away  from, 
gained  the  idea  of  completion,  or  intensive  force.  This 
is  seen  in  escocer,  cook  to  pieces,  that  is,  cook  out,  or  cook 
thoroughly.  ES-  may,  therefore,  be  compared  also  with 
DE-,  which  had  both  intensive  and  privative  or  negative 
force.  Being,  as  has  been  seen,  so  much  alike  both  in 
meaning  and  in  lack  of  meaning,  it  is  natural  to  find  these 
prefixes  often  substituted  for  each  other,  as  well  as  for 
the  forceless  EN-.  The  two  forceless  prefixes  A-  and 
EN-  are  also  nearly  interchangeable. 

This  use  without  force  has  already  been  described  in 
treating  the  suffixes.  There  are  various  other  resem- 
blances, as  well,  in  the  Provencal  treatment  of  suffixes  and 
of  prefixes.  Most  of  the  peculiarities  of  sufl&x-formation 
Averc  especially  conspicuous  in  the  formation  of  nouns,  and 

'  Often  slightly  intensive  in  force. 


Formation  of  Verbs  411 

were  treated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  In  the  same 
way,  the  corresponding  pecuHarities  of  prefix-formation 
are  most  prominent  in  the  formation  of  verbs,  and  may, 
consequently,  be  treated  here. 

The  first  of  these  resemblances  between  suffix-  and 
prefix-formation  may  be  seen  in  the  disappearance  of 
certain  Latin  prefixes  from  use,  as  OB-  and  RETRO-, 
just  as  certain  suffixes  disappeared  and  the  scope  of 
others  was  enlarged.  Another  resemblance  to  the  suffixes 
is  in  the  substitution  of  one  Latin  prefix  for  another,^ 
as  CON-  for  IN-  in  convidar-  (Latin  invitare),  just  as 
among  the  suffixes  we  find  -ICIA  substituted  for  -ITIA. 
There  seem  to  be  also  Provengal  examples  of  this  substi- 
tution of  prefixes,  just  as  there  were  Provengal  examples 
of  the  substitution  of  suffixes.^  .This  phenomenon  may 
be  seen  in  deslenquir  for  relenquir  with  the  meaning  of 
relenquir,  and  therefore  not  connected  with  the  Latin 
delinquere.* 

There  is,  however,  one  other  point  peculiar  to  the 
formation  of  words  by  prefixes  and  totally  unlike  any  pro- 
cess found  under  suffixes  or  elsewhere,  namely  the  process 
of  decomposition  or  recomposition.  This  is  the  changing 
of  the  vowel  of  the  word  formed  by  the  prefix  back  to  the 
form  which  it  had  in  the  simple  word.  In  Latin,  when  a 
word  was  formed  by  use  of  a  prefix,  the  vowel  of  the  verb 
(or  other  word)  to  which  it  was  attached  underwent  a 
weakening,  which  may  be  seen,  for  example,  in  ref ringer e 

'  Exclusive  of  the  interchange  of  forceless  prefixes  mentioned  above. 

2  This  change  is  assumed  to  have  taken  place  already  in  Lat.  because 
of  the  number  of  the  Romance  languages  in  which  the  prefix  CON-  is 
found  with  this  verb. 

3  See  Part  I,  chap,  i,  p.  12,  on  the  substitution  of  -ADOR  for  -AL. 
*  Found  in  Prov.  as  delinquir,  meaning  "to  lack." 


412  Word-Formation  in  Pro  venial 

and  conficere  beside  the  simple  verbs  fr anger e  and  facere. 
There  are  some  exceptions  to  this,  but  it  is  the  usual 
process.  The  weakening  of  the  vowel  of  the  verb  was 
caused  by  shifting  the  stress  to  the  vowel  of  the  prefix 
in  early  formations.^  After  the  vowel  had  become 
weakened,  however,  the  accent  returned  to  the  base- 
word.^  Now,  much  later  on,  in  Romance  times,  the 
composition  of  the  word  being  clear,  perhaps  owing  to 
the  presence  of  the  simple  verbs,  as  frangere  and  facere, 
the  prefix  received  the  same  amount  of  stress  as  the 
verb.^  The  two  elements  being  thus  thoroughly  distinct, 
each  one  returned  to  its  original  form.^  Thus  refringere 
became  in  Provencal  refranher  instead  of  refrenher. 
This  shows  only  the  verb  changing  its  form;  but  the 
prefix  changed  as  well,  EX-  being  preferred  to  E-  and 
SUBTUS-  to  SUB-. 

The  individual  prefixes  will  now  be  studied  in  alpha- 
betic order. 

A- 

The  force  of  the  prefix  A-*^  from  the  Latin  AD-  may 
be  seen  much  more  clearly  in  the  examples  of  parasyn- 

1  For  this  law  of  accentuation,  see  Lindsay,  Lathi  Language,  158. 

2  I.e.,  the  Penultima  law  came  into  operation. 

3  See  Mots  Composes,  92;   also  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  669. 

*  There  are,  however,  examples  of  words  that  did  not  become 
decomposed,  which  are  especially  common  when  the  prefix  was  CON-. 
Thus  we  see  the  Lat.  concludere  and  conficere  becoming  conclure  and 
confire,  whereas  deficere  and  excludere  became  defaire  and  esclaure. 
The  absence  of  decomposition  in  words  formed  with  CON-  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  prefix  CUM-  was  fast  disappearing  from  the  Lat. 
of  Gaul  except  as  an  inseparable  particle.  It  forms  few  if  any  certain 
new  words  in  Prov.,  and  in  Lat.,  even,  in  certain  cases,  it  early  became 
fused  with  the  rest  of  the  word,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  Prov.  comtar 
representing   the   Lat.    computare. 

6  This  is  the  form  into  which  AD-  has  developed  except  when  added 
to  verbs  beginning  with  a  vowel,  for  which  see  p.  417,  below.     Elsewhere 


Formation  of  Verbs  413 

theta  than  in  the  cases  in  which  it  is  added  to  an  already 
existing  verb.  In  cases  of  the  latter  kind,  or  prefix- 
formations,  the  two  verbs  existing  side  by  side  generally 
have  no  perceptible  difference  of  meaning.  This  mean- 
ingless use  of  the  prefix,  however,  was  true  of  AD-  when 
added  to  verbs  in  Latin,  and  the  lack  of  force  in  the 
Provengal  A-  is  but  a  continuance  of  the  Latin  usage. 
Indeed  most  of  the  Provencal  verbs  beginning  with  A- 
are  simply  the  descendants  of  Latin  words  in  AD-,  or 
else  parasyntheta;  yet  there  surely  were  some  new 
formations  on  verbs  by  means  of  this  prefix  in  Provengal, 
and  these  will  be  given  in  the  following  list. 

Besides  the  verbs  in  A-  showing  no  difference  of  mean- 
ing from  the  simple  verb,  there  are  other  classes  of  verbs 
in  which  a  slight  difference  in  meaning  between  the  two 
forms  may  be  distinguished.  In  some  of  these  cases  the 
prefix  appears  to  change  the  simple  verb  from  intransitive 
to  transitive.  These  formations  are  probably  parasyntheta 
with  a  simple  noun  or  adjective  as  the  base-word.^  Other 
words  beginning  with  a  prefix,  and  beside  which  a  simple 
verb  persists,  are,  nevertheless,  even  more  clearly  parasyn- 
theta, as  their  meaning  proves.^  There  are  also  some  pairs 
of  words  having  miscellaneous  differences  of  meaning.^ 


the  d  of  AD-  was  assimilated  to  the  following  consonant,  even  in  Lat. 
These  words  are  found  spelled  both  with  the  single  and  the  double 
consonant  in  Prov.,  but  listed  here  only  with  the  single  one.  This 
give§  us  therefore  A-  as  the  development  of  AD-  in  these  words. 

1  Such  verbs  are  acostumar,  anualhar,  atruandar,  and  avergonhar. 

-  As  in  afilar,  afondar,  apilar,  aplombar,  aprimar,  arenhar,  and  in 
asolar  and  atalentar  in  one  of  the  meanings  of  each.  Thus,  for  example, 
afilar  is  probably  formed  on  fil,  thread,  and  not  on  filar.  In  this  and  in 
other  lists,  however,  such  words  will  be  given,  whenever  a  simple  verb 
exists  beside  them,  with  a  reference  to  the  parasyntheta.  See  Part  III 
(pp.  501-3)  for  a  discussion  of  the  reasons  for  this  classification. 

3  As  in  agreujar,  aquitar,  etc.,  although  in  these  cases  the  difference 
in  meaning  is  very  slight. 


414 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


The  list  of  the  verbs  in  -ar  formed  by  the  use  of 

the  prefix  A-  will  now  be  given.     It  is  to  be  noted  that 

in  this  list  and  also  in  those  containing  the  prefixes  DE-, 

EN-,   and   ES-,   the   simple  verb   is   omitted  when  the 

compomid  differs  in  no  way  from  it  in  meaning. 

abaisar,  lower 
abastar,  suffice 
abatalhar,  battle 
ablasmar  (se),  faint 


blesmar,  blasmar,  cause  to  faint 
(blesmar  [se]),  faint 

colar- 


conorlar,  comfort,  exhort 
costumar,  be  accustomed 


abotonar,^  button 

acolar,  embrace 

acolpar,^  accuse  of 

acomensar,  begin 

acompanhar,  accompany 

acomparar,  compare 

acomtar,  relate 

aconortar,  encourage,  console 

acorbar,  bend,  curve 

acostumar,^  accustom 

adelechar,^  delight 

ademandar,  ask 

adepravar,  spoil,  corrupt 

adodrinar,  teach,  instruct 

adomesgar,  tame 

adonar,  entrust 

adrechurar,  straighten,  rectify 

adreisar,  set  up 

adurar,^  endure 

aesmar,*  value,  estimate 

afaisonar,  fashion 

afazendar^ 

'  Possible  parasyntheta. 

2  There  are  four  distinct  verbs  -nath  this  form,  but  the  verb  acolar 
appears  to  be  formed  on  the  noun  col,  neck.     See  parasyntheta,  p.  505. 

'  Adurar  has  just  the  same  meaning  to  be  seen  in  endurar<indurarc. 
It  may  simply  represent  a  prefix-change  in  endurar. 

*  See  also  under  AD-  and  AZ-,  pp.  417-18,  below. 

'  Found  only  in  the  past  participle  afazendat  which  seems  to  mean 
"in  need."  The  simple  verb  is  likewise  found  only  in  the  past  participle 
fazendat,  which  may  have  the  same  meaning. 


durar,  last;   but  also  endure 


Formation  of  Verbs  415 

afiansar,  guarantee 

aficar  (se),  be  attached 

afigurar,  depict,  portray 

afilar,  sharpen  filar^ 

afinar,  end,  settle;  afinar  (se),come    finar,  end,  die;  finish 

to  an  end 
afizar,  assure,  guarantee 
aflatar,  flatter 

afondar  (se),  sink  fondar^ 

aforestar,  have  right  of  forestry 

aformar,  form,  shape  formar,  form,  create 

afrenar,  bridle,  subdue 
afrevolar,  weaken 
afruchar,  profit,  fructify 
afumar,    blacken,    stain    with 

smoke 
agachar,  watch 
agafar,  catch,  hook,  grasp 

agarar,  wait,  await,  observe  garar,  look  at,  watch  over 

agardar,  look  at 

agensar,  beautify,  adorn;  please 
agotar,  drip,  drain 

agreujar,  annoy,  molest  greujar,  load,  burden;  torture 

airar,-  irritate,  anger 
ajostar,    bring    together,    couple;    jostar,  joust 

(ajostar  [se],  come  together) 
alaschar,  slacken,  relax 
aliamar,  bind,  attach 
aliurar,  dehver  • 
alogar,  lease,  rent 
aloirar,  lure 
amaridar,  marry 
ameitadar,  divide  in  half 
amenasar,  tlireaten 
amermar,  diminish 

amezurar,  moderate,  regulate  mezurar,  measure 

amolherar,  marry 
amonedar,  coin 
amonestar,  warn,  admonish 

1  Filar  and  fondar  exist,   but  are   not  connected   with  afilar  and 
afondar.     For  these  words,  see  parasyntheta,  p.  505. 

2  See  also  under  AZ-,  p.  418,  below. 


416 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


give  pasture  to 


atnoslrar,  teach,  show 

ammlhar  (se),  become  hizy 

apagar,  appease,  cahn 

aparelhar,    associate;     prepare, 
arrange 

aparlar,  address,  apostrophize 

apastencar 

apasturar 

apauzar,  affix,  apply 

apejorar,  become  worse 

apenar  (se),  take  pains 

apensar  (se),  reflect  consider 

apilar,  pile  up 

apimpar,  dress  up,  adorn 

aplonibar,  upset,  knock  down 

apohlar,  colonize,  populate 

aprimar,  make  thin  or  fine 

aprofechar,  profit 

apropchar  (se),  approach 

aquitar,  deliver,  acquit 

arapar,  snatch  away 

araubar,  steal,  pillage 

arazonar,  demand,  claim,  apostro- 
phize 

arengar,  arrange 

arenhar,  attach  by  the  bridle 

aromansar,  translate  into  Romance 

asadolar,  cram,  stuff 

asalvar,  save 

asaziar,  satiate 

asazonar,  be  in  season 

asenar,  make  intelligible 

aserrar,  confine 

asolar,-  consolidate 

asolasar,  divert,  amuse 

asoltar,  give  up,  deliver 

asotilar,  make  fine  or  subtle 


'  Pilar,  primar  and  renhar  exist,  but  are  not  connected  with  apilar, 
aprimar,  and  arenhar,  the  resemblance  being  only  accidental.  For  these 
verbs,  see  parasyntheta,  pp.  506  and  515. 

2  Asolar  is  also  found  with  the  meaning  of  "throw  to  the  ground," 
which  meaning  may  be  seen  in  the  Lat.  assolare,  formed  on  solum,  ground. 


nualhar,  be  lazy 
pagar,  pay,  satisfy 


parlar,  speak 

pauzar,  place  * 

penar,  torture 
pensar,  think 
pilar^ 

plomhar,  lead  or  load;    plunge 

primar  ^ 

guitar,  leave 

razonar,  explain,  address,  talk 

renhar^ 


Formation  of  Verbs 


417 


talentar,  desire 

taular,  arrange,  begin  (a  game) 
tensar,  quarrel,  dispute 

tornar,  turn;  tornar  se,  return 

trobar,  find;  make  verse 

truandar,   wander  about  like  a 
truari 


atalentar,  please;  atalentar  se,  find 

pleasure  in 
ataular  (se),  sit  down  at  table 
atensar,  tender,  protect 
atirar,  attract 
atornar  (se),  return 
atraversar,  cross 

atrobar,  find;    observe;    compose 
atrosar,  load,  pack  up 
atruandar,  attract,  allure 

avergonhar,  shame;  avergonhar  se, 

be  ashamed 
avironar,'\  go  around,  surround 

Before  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  the  verb,  the  d 

of  the  prefix  AD-  regularly  remains  or  becomes  z  according 

to  dialect,  but  also  disappears  sometimes,  just  like  any 

medial  d.^     Thus  from  the  Latin  audire  are  found  the 

forms  audir,  auzir,  and  also  auir;   and  in  the  case  of  the 

prefix  AD-,  all  three  developments  are  found  in  the  words 

adesmar,  azesmar,  and  aesmar.     The  words  with  d  or  z 

are,    however,   the   usual   development;   d   is   the    most 

frequent  of  all.     Thus  are  found  the  words: 

adamplar,  amplify,  augment  aniplar,  augment 

adantar,  dishonor 

adastrar,^  favor,  endow  astrar,^  determine  by  fate  (  ?) 

adestimar,  adesmar  (also  azesmar, 

aesmar),  value  at 
aderetar,*  make  heir  to  eretar,  inherit 


Very  probably  a  para- 


'  See  Grandgent,  sec.  65. 

2  Placed  here  because  astrar  may  exist, 
syntheton  formed  on  astre,  star. 

3  May  not  exist.     Astrat,  which  is  found,  may  be  a  past  participle 
or  a  noun.     See  Levy,  I,  93. 

*  Probably  a  parasyntheton. 


t  Verbs  of  Lat.  origin  are  ajurar,  a.djure <adjurare;  anulhar,  annul< 
annullare;  apregar,  pray,  entreat <apprecari/  asonar,  make  assonance 
Kassoriare;    and  atemprar,  temper <attempr are. 


418  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

adobrar,  work,  fashion  obrar,  work 

adonorar,  hohor  onorar,  honor 

arforrfe«a;'t  (also  aordenor),  regulate  ordenar,  order 

AZ-  is  found  in  azesmar  beside  adesmar  (see  list  above) , 
in  azirar  beside  airar  (see  p.  415),  and  in  many  of  the 
paras\aitheta  formed  by  using  this  prefix  in  connection 
with  -ar  (azonglar,  etc.)- 

Besides  being  fomid  in  the  verbs  ending  in  -ar,  there 
are  many  examples  in  which  the  prefix  A-  was  joined  to 
verbs  of  other  conjugations;  and  although  most  of  these 
words  were  formed  in  Latin,  there  seem  to  be  a  few  cases 
in  which  the  prefix  wa,s  added  later. 

The  new  formations  in  verbs  in  -re  are  as  follows: 

aconduire,^  bring  up  conduire,  lead 

aconsegre,^  pursue  (also  aconseguir) 
aderdre,^  raise 
afendre,  split,  cleave 
arendre,  t  f  return 

There  appears  to  be  only  one  possible  Provencal  forma- 
tion in  -er: 
osa6er,-ttt  know 

The  words  in  -aiser,  -eiser,  and  -oiser  are  all  of  Latin 
origin.^ 

>  See  double  prefixes,  p.  491. 

2  This  is  the  same  kind  of  formation  seen  in  ucreire  and  acreiser 
(Ft.  accroire  and  accrottre)  of  Lat.  origin,  and  may  be  compared  also 
with  the  Fr.  assavoir.  Asaber,  likewise,  probably  dates  back  to  Vulgar 
Lat.     All  of  these  words  generally  depended  on  faire. 

3  Thus  aconoiser,  recognize,  acreiser,  increase,  apaiser,  feed,  and 
apareiser,  appear,  probably  going  back  to  a  Vulgar  Lat.*  apparescere. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  is  adamar,  love<adamarc. 

ft  Descendants  of  words  already  formed  in  Lat.  are:  acorre,  run  up, 
acreire,  believe,  ametre,  put,  place,  apendre,  belong,  aprendre,  learn 
and  atraire,  draw,  come  near,  resemble. 

ttt  The  other  words  in  -er  of  Lat.  origin  are:  afranher,  break,  bend, 
ajazer,  be  delivered  of  a  child,  asezer,  seat  (Fr.  asseoir),  and  atener,  hold. 


Formation  of  Verbs  419 

Provengal    formations    in    -ir    are    somewhat    more 

usual.     Thus  we  find: 

aconseguir^,  pursue 

a(d)einplir,  azemplir,  fill 

afenir,  approach  the  end  fenir,  finish 

ajugir,  flee 

amarvir,  give  at  once,  be  ready        marvir,  hasten 

azaunir,  f  disgrace,  dishonor 

AB- 

Next  in  alphabetic  order  are  two  prefixes  of  learned 

origin,  AB-  and  BIS-.  AB-  appears  to  exist  as  a  verbal 
prefix  only  in : 

ahauzir,"^  suit,  please  auzir,  hear 

BIS- 

BIS-^  is  found  only  in: 
bistensar,  delay,  disturb  tensar,  dispute,  disturb 

COM-,    CON- 

There  are  many  words  in  Provengal  showing  the  prefix 
COM-  or  CON-,  but  exceedingly  few  of  them  show  any 
signs  of  having  been  formed  m  Provengal  times.  Taking 
the  whole  list  into  consideration,  few  of  the  compounds 
have  any  difference  at  all  from  the  simple  words,  thereby 

1  See  also  aconsegre  on  p.  418,  and  double  prefixes  on  p.  491. 

2  The  AB-  here  represents  the  Lat.  OB-,  the  verb  coming  from 
obaudire.  In  abivernar,  we  have  an  example  of  AB-  in  a  parasyntheton. 
A  very  obscure  word  is  abauzar,  prostrate,  upset.  Korting  (Xo.  5144) 
connects  the  word  with  hoza,  belly,  which  is  not  in  Raynouard  or  Levy. 
As  far  as  the  meaning  is  concerned,  the  formation  might  be  AB- -fawsar, 
raise,  or  A-  -j-baus  (abyss)  -|- AR,  but  either  combination  would  give 
abausar  instead  of  abauzar. 

3  Or  BES-,  under  which  heading  the  prefix  is  given  in  the  formation 
of  nouns. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  are  acolhir,  receive,  welcome,  adormir,  put  to  sleep, 
and  anoirir,  nourish. 


420  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

tending  to  show  that  these  words  w^re  of  early  formation, 
and  had  time  to  lose  the  force  which  the  prefix  originally 
contributed.^  Such,  indeed,  is  known  to  be  the  case.^ 
Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  extreme  weakening  in  force 
of  the  prefix,  it  continued  to  form  new  words  in  some  of  the 
Romance  languages,  notably  in  Spanish  and  Italian,  in 
which  cases  the  prefix  regularly  has  its  original  meaning 
of  ''in  company  with,"^  as  in  the  Spanish  words  concenar 
and  concomer.  Yet  in  Provengal,  there  are  few  words 
with  COM-  or  CON-  as  prefix  whose  formation  may  not 
with  certainty  be  ascribed  to  Latin,  since  these  words  are 
either  actually  found  there,  or  else  similar  forms  are 
found  in  so  many  of  the  Romance  languages  as  to  indicate 
a  common  origin  in  Latin. 

The  only  words  having  the  prefix  COM-  or  CON-  that 
appear  to  have  been  formed  in  Provengal  are  as  follows : 

Verbs  ending  in  -ar: 

compauzar,*  compose  pauzar,  put 

conforsar,  compel  forsar,  force 

contocar,  fall  upon,  surprise  tocar,  touch 

convizitar,]  scrutinize  carefully  vizitar,  visit 

Verbs  ending  in  -re: 
conderdre,]]  pile  up,  raise  derdre,  raise 

■  The  other  prefixes,  often  used  without  force,  A-,  DE-,  and  EN-, 
gave  no  decided  force  to  the  simple  verb,  even  in  Lat. 

2  See  Cooper,  262-71.  '  See  Meyer-Lubke,  II,  673. 

<  Borrowed  from  the  Lat.  componere,  but  formed  under  the  influence 
of  the  simple  verb  pauzar. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  ending  in  -ar  are:  concagar,  BO\\<concacare; 
concasar,  crush  <conquassare;  configurar,  make  si.rm\aT<configurare; 
congitar,  summon<conjeciare;  conortar,  encourage  Kconfortare;  and 
contribular,  torture Kcontribulare.  Other  words  in  -A  probably  having 
sources  in  Lat.  are:  comensar,  begin  and  compasar,  compass. 

tt  Words  of  Lat.  origin  ending  in  -re  are  comordre,  seize  <co7nmordere; 
and  concreire,  trust <concredere.  A  word  in  -er  is  complazer,  please< 
complacere.     -eiser  is  seen  in  compareisrr,  appear <comparescere. 


Formation  of  Verbs  421 

Verbs  ending  in  -ir: 
concolhir,^t  gather  together  colhir,  gather 

Thus  there  are  no  new  words  formed  in  which  the 
prefix  preserves  the  meaning  of  "in  company  with." 
The  only  change  of  meaning  that  it  is  possible  to  see  in 
the  above  words  is  a  strengthening  of  the  original  verb  and 
this  is  not  always  clear.  Even  these  words  may  have 
been  formed  in  Latin,  though  not  found  in  the  other 
languages,  or  they  may  show  an  imitation  in  Provengal  of 
the  usual  Latin  development  of  the  prefix.-  Such  words 
as  the  Spanish  concenar,  concomer,  etc.,  seem  to  be  formed 
in  the  modern  language  with  the  Spanish  preposition  con, 
with.  The  other  languages — Italian  and  Portuguese — 
that  have  words  of  this  kind  also  have  con  and  co7n  as 
the  word  for  "with." 

CONTRA- 

The  Provengal  prefix  CONTRA-  (Latin  contra),  when 
joined  to  verbs,  has  several  different  meanings,  but  only 
one  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  For  the  French  pre- 
fix CONTRE-,  likewise  from  the  Latin  CONTRA-, 
Darmesteter^  distinguishes  four  kinds  of  meanings — 
"in  opposition  to,"  "in  contradiction  with,"  "in  return 
for,"  and  "opposite  to"  (position) — but  it  is  difficult  to 
find  examples  of  anything  but  the  first  two  meanings  in 
Provengal,  with  the  idea  of  opposition  bemg  by  far 
the  most  important.  This  idea  is  seen  in  such  words  as 
contradentejar,*  contrastar,  contraferir,  and,  with  a  slight 

1  This  word  really  has  CON-  expressed  twice. " 

2  I.e.,  it  was  found  to  be  practically  forceless  in  words  formed  in  Lat., 
and  the  Prov.  formations  may  have  imitated  this  instead  of  the  original 
use  of  the  prefix. 

3  Mots  Composes,  107.  ^  See  parasyntheta,  p.  507. 


t  A  word  of  Lat.  origin  in  -ir  is  conjauzir,  welcome Kcongaudere. 


422  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

extension  of  tlio  idea,  in  contrapezar  and  contravaler.  The 
second  meaning  is  seen  in  contramandar,  contraminar, 
and  contrapelar.  Real  reciprocal  force,  such  as  is  seen 
in  the  French  contf aimer,  is  not  found  in  Provencal, 
but  contravaler  might  perhaps  be  placed  under  the  heading 
of  "in  return  for."  The  various  Romance  meanings  of 
CONTRA-  may  be  found,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
Latin  preposition  or  adverb,  but  only  when  used  singly. 
CONTRA-  is  rare  in  Latin  compounds,  where  it  had  the 
force  of  opposition,  as  in  contradicere. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  point  out  one  more  use 
of  the  Provengal  prefix  CONTRA-,  i.e.,  that  of  giving  no 
force  at  all  to  the  word  to  which  it  was  attached,  leaving 
it  with  its  original  meaning.  This  is  common,  of  course, 
in  other  Romance  languages  for  such  prefixes  as  A-,  DE-, 
EN-,  and  ES-,  but  Provencal  goes  farther  in  weakening 
a  prefix  with  as  much  meaning  and  individuality  as 
CONTRA-.  Yet  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  meaning  in  it 
in  such  words  as  contranaiser,  and  even  also  in  contra - 
gardar  and  contresperonar,  although  some  one  of  the 
meanings  of  CONTRA-  may  have  been  originally  felt. 

CONTRA-  is  prefixed  to  verbs  ending  in  -ar  in  the 

following  examples : 

amtragardar,  keep,  preserve  gardar,  keep,  take  care  of 

contralasar,  meddle  with,  engage  in  lasar,  bind,  tie 

contramandar,  countermand  mandar,  order 

contraminar,  countermine  minar,  mine 

contramontar ,  mount  (  ?)  montar,  mount 

conlrapauzar,  oppose,  put  against  pauzar,  put 

contrapelar,  reclaim  apelar,  call 

contrapezar,  weigh,  balance  pezar,  be  heavy 

contrastar,  resist  estar,  stand 

contresperonar, ^strike  with  spur  esperonar,  spur 

1  Possibly  a  parasj'iitheton  on  esperon,  spur,  but  no  words  of  this 
kind  with  CONTRA-  as  prefix  seem  certain.  The  formation  seems 
instead  to  be  on  the  verb  esperonar  with  the  practically  forceless  use  of 
CONTRA-. 


Formation  of  Verbs  423 

Prefixed  to  verbs  in  -re,  CONTRA-  is  found  in: 

contracorre,  run  in  opposite  direc-     corre,  run 

tions;    run  toward 
contrafaire,  counterfeit  faire,  make 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -er,  it  is  found  in: 

coniranaiser,  begin,  originate,  arise     naiser,  be  born 
contratemer,  beware,  mistrust  temer,  fear 

contravaler,  be  equivalent  to  valer,  be  worth 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -ir,  it  is  found  in : 
contraferir,  strike  against  ferir,  strike 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -ejar,  it  is  found  in : 
contra  pair  ejar,  be  like  a  father  pairejar,  be  like  a  father 

DE- 

The  Provengal  prefix  DE-^  is  an  interesting  one  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  two  entirely  contrary  ideas  that  it 
expresses:  one  intensive,  and  the  other  privative.- 
Examples,  to  be  sure,  may  be  found  in  Latm,  with  both 
of  these  meanings,  as:  deamare  for  the  first,  and  deesse 
for  the  second.  Indeed,  the  prefix,  when  used  in  compo- 
sition, seems  to  have  originally  given  to  the  verb  the 
force  of  movement  from  or  removal,  and  thus  privation. 
From  the  idea  of  completion,  which  it  may  have  gained 
from  the  idea  of  leaving,  or  moving  away  from,  it  perhaps 
derived  the  intensive  force.  At  any  rate,  both  of  these 
meanings  existed  in  Latin,  as  well  as  a  third  usage,  i.e., 
that  of  having  no  force  at  all.  What  difference  is  there, 
for  example,  between  fraudare  and  defraudare,  or  between 
nominare  and  denominare?  These  cases  seem  to  illus- 
trate a  loss  of  force  in  the  prefix  from  the  intensive  force 
which   it   had   in   such    words  as  deamare,  and  perhaps 

'From  a  Lat.  DE-  unchanged.  -  See  Mots  Composes,  109. 


424  Word-Formation  in  Pro  venial 

dealbare,  exactly  equivalent  to  the  loss  of  force  under- 
gone by  diminutive  suffixes  when  attached  to  words  in 
common  use,  except  that  in  the  case  of  the  prefix,  the 
weakening  of  meaning  (extended  to  Classic  Latin^  whereas 
the  use  of  a  diminutive  suffix  with  no  force  at  all  belonged 
rather  to  the  vulgar  language. 

The  meaning  of  privation,  or  force  exactly  opposite  to 
♦that  of  the  simple  verb,  is  seen  in  dearestar,  decolpar  se, 
degranar,  demarcor,  and  degarentir.  In  the  other  words, 
simple  verb  and  comi)ound  have  exactly  the  same  mean- 
ing. The  lists  follow.  The  prefix  DE-  is  used  with  verbs 
in  -ar  in  the  following  examples: 

dearestar,  set  free  arestar,  arrest 

debaisar,  go  down  in  price  baisar,  lower 

debrizar,  break 

decolpar  (se),  excuse  oneself  col  par,  accuse 

definar,  end,  cease 

degastar,  ruin 

degolar,  drojj 

degranar,  take  grain  from  hopper     granar,    produce    or    turn    into 

grain 
dejunar,  fast 
delaisar,  abandon,  leave 

demalhar,  destroy,  demolish  malhar,  hammer 

demarcar,  unmark  marcar,  mark 

demenar,  lead,  direct 
depintar,  ptiint,  depict 
deplumar,  strip  of  feathers 
deraubar,  strip,  steal 
desagelar,  seal 
devedar,'\  forbid 

I  For  this  loss  of  force  in  prefixes  in  general,  see  Cooper,  247;    for 
a  discussion  of  diminutive  suffixes,  see  above,  p.  14. 


t  Verbs  in  -ar  of  Lat.  origin  are  decantar,  administer<rfecan/ore; 
defraudar,  chea,t<defraudare;  denomnar{se),  be  cn,lled<idenominare;  de- 
pregar  entTea.t<deprecari  and  devogar<*devocitare{1).  See  Romania, 
XXXIV,  196,  for  this  last  word. 


Formation  of  Verbs  425 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -er,  DE-  is  found  only  in : 

derezerner,'\  ransom  rezemer,  ransom 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -ir,  we  find : 

debastir,  demolish 

defalhir,  fail 

degarentir,  free  a  person  of  the  re-     garentir,  guarantee 

sponsibility     of     pledging     his 

property  as  a  guaranty 
deparlir,j^  separate,  divide 

DES- 

The  prefix  DES-/  although  very  much  commoner 
in  Provencal  than  DE-,  has  much  the  same  meaning. 
This  similarity,  however,  may  be  traced  back  to  Latin, 
where  it  brought  about  a  confusion  between  the  two 
suffixes.  DIS-,  the  source  of  the  Provencal  DES-, 
indicates  in  Latin  separation  and  also  negation,  but  there 
are  some  words  in  which  the  prefix  conveys  no  such  force. 
Disjedare,  for  example,  beside  jadare,  to  throw,  seems 
to  mean  only  to  throw  around,  whereas  disseparare  has 
precisely  the  meaning  of  the  simple  verb  separare,  separate. 
This  lack  of  force  may  have  been  due  to  the  very  meaning 
of  the  simple  verb,  which  made  impossible  for  the  prefix 

1  Sometimes  the  form  DEIS-,  which  also  seems  to  represent  DIS-, 
is  found.  Thus  deisarrezar,  disarrange,  and  deisazegar,  dislocate,  from 
arrezar,  and  azegar.  DE--|— EX  has  also  been  suggested  as  a  source 
for  DES-,  but  is  not  certain  in  any  case,  whereas  in  most  cases  DIS- 
is  the  certain  source  of  the  prefix. 


t  Verbs  in  -er  of  Lat.  origin  are  decazer <decidere  and  defranher 
<defringere,  showing  the  breaking-up  of  the  compound;  also  depenher< 
depingere  and  destrenher<destringere.  In  -aiser,  of  Lat.  origin,  there 
is  depaiser<depascere,  and  in  -re,  there  are  decorre<decurrere,  derire< 
deridere,   and  derompre<derumpere. 

tt  Of  Lat.  origin  there  are  found  the  following  verbs  in  -IR:  deglotir 
<degluttire,  demedir<demetiri,  demenir<deminuere,  dementir<dementire, 
demerir<demerere. 


426  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

any  force  other  than  mtensive/  for  although  DIS-  finalh' 
acquired  negative  value,  changing  completely  whatever 
meaning  the  simple  verb  had  so  that  we  should  expect 
disseparare  to  mean  to  bring  together,  this  change  came 
about  only  gradually  from  the  original  idea  of  separation. 
The  idea  of  negation  is  the  one  contained  in  the  great 
majority  of  Provenyal  verbs,  but  there  are  some  verbs 
beginning  with  a  meaningless  DES-,  perhaps  formed 
under  the  influence  of  such  words  as  disseparare.  Thus 
the  meanings  of  DE-  and  DES-  were  almost  identical, 
and  as  far  as  meaning  was  concerned,  the  prefixes  could 
be  substituted  for  each  other.  Now,  in  the  recomposition 
of  compound  words  which  took  place  in  Vulgar  Latin  and 
in  Romance  times,^  whenever  the  compound  nature  of  the 
word  was  recognized,  prefixes  might  be  interchanged  or 
substituted  for  one  another,  the  longer  or  more  sonorous 
form  having  the  preference.  Hence  DES-  is  found  in 
many  words  which  in  Latin  had  DE-,^  just  as  SUBTUS- 
was  substituted  for  SUB-.'* 

Descaminar  and  descenturar,  as  well  as  desvazer  and 
destolre,  and  possibly  a  few  other  words  which  may  be 
parasyntheta,  show  the  original  meaning  of  separation 
when  compared  with  the  simple  word;  desgaimentar,  des- 
longar,  dezohlidar,  despesar,  destardar,  destrencar,  destriar, 
destrigar,  desvariar,  desvelhar,  descrupir,  dezeisir,  desgiquir, 

'  This  intensive  force,  however,  was  not  strong  enough  to  show  any 
decided  difference  in  meaning  between  the  simple  and  the  compound 
verbs.  Cooper,  275,  suggests  as  a  starting-point  for  the  intensive  forms 
such  verbs  as  discoquere,  cook  to  pieces,  and  dispulverare,  make  powder 
of,  both  having  originally  the  idea  of  separation.  Thus  the  two  ideas, 
the  intensive  and  the  idea  of  separation,  merge,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
divide  them  sharply. 

2  Mots  Composes,  90-95.  ^  Ibid.,  93. 

*  Pp.  458-59,  below.  Some  verbs  are  found  with  either  DE-  or 
DES-  as  a  prefix. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


427 


and  dessalhir  show  no  change  of  meaning.     In  the  other 

words,  the  force  of  the  prefix  is  that  of  negation,  the 

compound  word  being  directly  opposite  in  meaning  to 

the  simple  one. 

DES-  is  found  prefixed  to  verbs  ending  in  -ar  in  the 

following  cases: 

dezabricar,  uncover 
dezadornar,  rob  of  ornament 
dezaizinar,^  make  uneasy 
dezalbergar,  dislodge 
dezamarrar,  unmoor,  unfasten 
dezarmar,  disarm 
dezaiitorgar,  disapprove 
dezavoar,  disavow,  repudiate 
dezazautar,-    be    disagreeable    to; 

displease 
desbalansar,  upset,  unbalance 
desbaratar,  put  to  rout;  sell  cheap; 

destroy 
desbendar,  unbind,  loosen 
desblocar,  take  off  lumps 
desbrancar,-  tear  free 
desbruelhar,  strip  of  leaves 
descaminar,^  turn  aside 
descantar,  make  fun  of;    make  a 

song  ridiculing  a  person 
descapdelar,^  deprive  (of  a  leader) , 

displace 
descapdolhar,  be  wanting,  fail 
descav^ar,*  take  off  shoes 
descavalcar,  cUsmount 
descelar,'^  disclose,  reveal 
descenturar,^  take  off  girdle 


abricar,  cover,  protect 

adornar,  adorn 

aizinar,  approach,  put  near 

albergar,  lodge 

aviarrar,  fasten 

armar,  arm 

autorgar,  authorize 

avoar,  avow 

azautar,  charm 

balansar,  balance 
baratar,  traffic 

bendar,  bind 
blocar,  bruise,  indent 
brancar,  put  forth  branches 
bruelhar,  put  forth  leaves 
caminar,  journey 
cantar,  sing 

capdelar,  govern 

cnpdolhar,  stand  out,  project 
causar,  to  shoe 
cavalcar,  ride 
celar,  conceal 
centurar,  gird  on 


1  Probably  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  aizin,  comfortable. 

-  Dezazautar,  desbrancar  and  dezcaminar  might  be  parasyntheta 
formed  on  azaut,  gracious,  hranc,  branch,  and  camin,  road. 

3  See  also  parasyntheta,  p.  507. 

<  The  past  participle  discalceatus  is  found  in  Lat.  but  not  the  infini- 
tive. For  descausar,  however,  cf.  the  Fr.  dechausser,  and  for  descelar 
the  Fr.  deceler. 

5  A  possible  parasyntheton. 


428 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


desclavar,  uiinail;   unhinge 
desclnrelar,  unnail;  get  out  of  joint 
descologar,  displace,  tear  out 
descolrar,  discolor 
descombrar,  disencumber 
descompanhar,  abandon 
desconortar,  discourage 
descoselhar,  not  to  counsel 
descoser,  rip  open 
descovidar,  not  to  invite 
descuidar,  disbelieve 
desdamnatjar ,  indemnify 
dezegalar,^  make  unequal 
dezenflar,  deflate 
dezeretar,  disinherit 
desfaisonar,  deform 
desfermar,  open 
desferrar,  take  off  iron;  unshoe 
desfiblar,^  unclasp 
desficar,  tear  off 
desfigurar,^  disfigure 
desfilar,  unravel 
desfre{n)ar,^  unchain,  free 
desfrezar,  rip  open 
desgaimentar,"^  groan,  lament 
desgelar,  thaw 
desguidar,  lead  astray 
deslasar,  untie,  unbind 
deslauzar,  disapprove,  despise 
desliar,  unbind 
desliamar,  unbind 
deslongar,^  remove 
deslotjar,  dislodge 
desmandar,  countermand 
desmarchar,  march  away 
desmembrar,  forget 
desmesclar,  destroy 
dcsmezurar,^  disorder,  debauch 


clavar,  nail 

davelar,  nail 

cologar,  place 

colrar,  color 

combrar,  encumber 

companhar,  put  in  company'  with 

conortar,  encourage 

coselhar,  counsel 

coser,  sew 

covidar,  invite 

cuidar,  think,  believe 

damnatjar,  damage 

egalar,  equal 

enflar,  inflate 

eretar,  inherit 

faisonar,  form 

fermar,  close 

ferrar,  bind  with  iron 

fiblar,  clasp 

ficar,  fix 

figurar,  figure 

filar,  spin,  sew 

frenar,  rein  in 

frezar,  embroider 

gaimentar,  lament 

gelar,  freeze 

guidar,  guide 

lasar,  bind 

Inuzar,  praise 

liar,  bind 

liamar,  bind 

longar,  remove 

lotjar,  lodge 

mandar,  command 

marchar,  march 

membrar,  remember 

mesclar,  mix 

niezurar,  measure 


'  Possible  parasyntheta. 

2  Here  we  find  the  forceless  prefix. 

3  The  meaning  shovis  desmezurar  to  be,  in  all  proliability,  a  parasyn- 
theton. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


429 


desmondar,  soil 

desmontar,  dismount 

desmurar,  break  open  a  wall 

dezoblidar,^  lose  the  memory,  forget 

dezordenar,^  act  in  disorderly  way 

despagar,  dissatisfy,  disappoint 

desparelhar,  separate 

despasar,^  dominate,  surmount 

despauzar,  put  down 

despesar,^'  -  divide,  put  in  pieces 

despoblar,  depopulate 

despopar,  deprive  of  suck 

desramar,^  strip  of  leaves 

desreglar^  (se),  act  immoderately 

desrengar,  disturb 

dessaborar,^  disgust 

dessagelar,  unseal 

dessalvar,  damn 

dessazonar,^  disturb,  disconcert 

dessenar,^  lose  senses 

desserrar,  unfasten 

destardar,^  delay 

destemprar,  disturb,  disorder 

destrencar,^  cut  to  bits 

destriar,^  distinguish,  choose 

destrigar,^  prevent,  delay 

destrosar,  unload 

desvariar,^  diversify 

desvelhar,  awaken 

desvergonhar^,  be  or  make  shameless 

desvojar,^  empty 

desvolopar,  f  take  away,  disclose 

1  Examples  of  the  forceless  prefix, 
is  perceptible,  as  in  dessebrar. 

2  Possible  parasyntheta. 

3  May  have  been  formed  on  the  corresponding  noun  as  parasyntheta 
in  spite  of  the  existence  of  the  verb. 


niondar,  clean 
montar,  mount 
viurar,  wall  up 
oblidar,  forget 
ordenar,  order 
pagar,  pay 
parelhar,  couple 
pasar,  pass 
pauzar,  place 
pesar,  break 
poblar,  populate 
popar,  give  suck  to 
ramar,  put  forth  leaves 
reglar  rule 
rengar,  arrange 
saborar,  taste 
sagelar,  seal 
salvar,  save 

sazonar,  come  in  season 
senar,  be  sensible 
serrar,  lock  up 
tardar,  delay 
temprar,  moderate 
trencar,  cut 
triar,  choose 
trigar,  delay,  defer 
trosar,  pack  up 
variar,  vary 
velhar,  be  awake 
vergonhar,  be  ashamed 
vojar,  empty 
volopar,  envelop 

In  despesar  the  idea  of  separation 


t  Words  with  DES-  ending  in  -ar  of  Lat.  origin  are:  descordar, 
disunite  <discordare;  desgitar,  throw  away<disjectare;  dessebrar,  sepa- 
rate <disse33arare;  destorbar,  disturb  <disturbare;  and  destermenar,  put 
an  end  to  <disterminare.  Probably  also  of  Lat.  origin  is  deslegar,  dilute 
<*disliquare  (  ?).     A  word  obscure  both  in  meaning  and  origin  is  deslugar. 


430  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

DES-  is  found  as  a  prefix  joined  to  verbs  in  -er  in 

the  following  cases: 

dezaver,  leave,  quit  aver,  have 

descaptener,  dejirive  of  siqjport  captener,  retain 

descoser,  rip  open  coser,  sew 

desdoler  (se),  console  oneself  doler,  grieve 
dezerzer,^  humiliate,  lower 

desmantener,  abandon  manlener,  maintain 

desparer,  disai)p(nir  parer,  appear 

destenher,-  lose  color  tenher,  dye,  color 

desvaler,  despise  valer,  be  worth,  value 

desvazer,  withdraw,  escape  vazer,  go 

desvoler,  be  unwilling  voler,  be  willing,  will 

desvolver,  f  untwist,  unwind  volver,  turn 

And  joined  to  verbs  in  -aiser,  -eiser,  in: 
despereiser,^  wake  up 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -re,  it  is  found  in : 
desbatre,  dispute,  debate  hatre,  beat 

desdire,  contradict  dire,  say,  speak 

desduire,  amuse  duire,  lead 

desfaire,  undo,  destroy  faire,  do 

destolre,*^\^\  take  away,  turn  aside      tolre,  take  awaj'^ 

Joined  to  verbs  in  -ir,  it  is  found  in : 

desbandir,  recall  from  exile  bandir,  sequester,  confiscate 

descantir,^  extinguish 

1  The  verb  erzer  is  not  found  except  with  the  prefix  DE-  in  derzer. 

'  A  Lat.  distinguere  exists,  but  with  a  different  meaning.  Destenher 
appears  to  be  a  Prov.  formation. 

3  This  is  probably  a  Lat.  formation,  however.  No  simple  word  is 
found  in  Prov.,  and  the  form  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  are  such  as 
would  come  from  a  Lat.  *dispigrescere. 

*  Forceless  prefix. 

5  Descantir  seems  to  be  only  escantir  with  a  change  of  prefix.  See 
escantir  under  ES-,  p.  446,  n.f 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  DES-  and  ending  in 
-er  are:  descenher,  ungirdKdiscingere;  desplazer,  disp\ea.so <displicere; 
dcstorser,  unroll  <dislorquere;    and  destrenher,   press <distri7igere. 

ft  Words  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  DES-  and  the  ending  -re 
are:  desclaure,  open <discludere;  descreire,  disbelieve <discredere;  des- 
pendre,  \inhang<disj)endere;    and  destendre,  unbend,  relax <dis(endere. 


Formation  of  Verbs  431 

descauzir}  insult,  outrage  cauzir,  see,  choose 

descrupir,^  squat,  cower  crupir,  squat 

dezeisir,"^  go  out,  retire  eisir,  go  out 

dezestablir,  disestablish  establir,  establish 

desgarnir,  disarm,  deprive  of  garnir,  equip 

desgiquir,^  depart,  leave  giquir,  leave 

desgrazir,  be  ungrateful  for  grazir,  be  thankful 
deslenquir,^  let  pass,  relinquish 

desmentir,  give  the  lie  to  meniir,  lie 

dezobedir,  disobey  obedir,  obey 

desposezir,  dispossess  posezir,  possess 

desprovezir,  deprive  provezir,  provide 

dessalhir,"^  go  out,  leave  out  salhir,  go  out 

dessazir,  abandon,  let  go  of  sazir,  seize 

desservir,  do   ill    turn;    clear  servir,  serve 

table 

dessovenir,  f  forget  sovenir,  remember 

And  joined  to  verbs  in  -ejar,  DES-  is  found  in: 

dezautrejar,  refuse  autrejar,  grant 

desmercejar,  refuse  mercy  mercejar,  ask  mercy 

desplaidejar,  repair,  indemnify  plaidejar,  dispute,    go    to    law, 

conciliate 

EM-,    EN- 

The  prefixes  EM-  and  EN-  representing  the  Latin 
IM-  and  IN-  are  very  common  in  forming  verbs  in 
Provengal,  as  in  the  other  Romance  languages.  The  pre- 
fix was  also  very  usual  in  Latin  ;^  but  it  is  difficult  to 
define  the  precise  meaning  that  it  had  there.  Meyer- 
Liibke  explains  its  functions  rather  vaguely,  but  perhaps 

1  The  change  of  meaning  in  the  compound  is  to  be  observed. 

2  Forceless  prefix. 

3  DES-  in  deslenquir  seems  to  be  a  change  of  prefix  for  RE-  in  rclen- 
quir  <relinquere. 

*  It  is   common  in  Classic  Lat.,  but  Cooper  strangely  omits  it  alto- 
gether in  his  list  of  prefixes  forming  verbs  in  Vulgar  Lat. 


t  Of  probable  Lat.  origin  is  dcscohrir,  discover <*discooperife. 


432  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

as  definitely  as  is  possible.^  From  the  idea  of  place  con- 
tained in  IN-,  some  Latin  verbs  are  formed,  as  includere, 
shut  in,  from  claudere,  shut,  incingere,  gird  on,  from  cingere, 
gird,  surround.  Yet  there  is  no  great  difference  in  -mean- 
ing between  the  simple  verb  and  the  compound.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  verbs  formed  in  Provengal:  there  is 
hardly  any  tangible  distinction  between  simple  word 
and  compound.  Other  verbal  prefixes  have  tended,  as 
has  been  seen,  to  lose  their  original  force,  as  for  example 
DE-,  and  also  EX-,  but  it  seems  as  though  IN-  never  had 
any  very  well-defined  force  to  give  to  a  verb,  and  that  the 
Provengal  examples  of  this  prefix  show  about  as  much 
force  as  those  found  in  Latin. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  lack  of  force  of  the  prefix 
IN-  does  not  apply,  however,  to  the  formation  of  para- 
syntheta,  in  which,  as  will  be  seen,  the  prefix  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence,  used  with  both  nouns  and  adjectives. 
With  nouns,  it  generally  has  its  original  meaning  of  posi- 
tion. Thus  engorjar,  swallow  up,  and  enterrar,  buiy, 
formed  on  gorja  and  terra.  In  words  formed  on  adjec- 
tives, it  means  to  endow  with  the  quality  expressed  by 
the  adjective. 

In  the  following  list,  EM-  is  used  before  verbs  beginning 
with  the  labials  b  and  p,  and  EN-  everywhere  else.^  As 
was  the  case  with  A-,  the  simple  word  is  given  only  when 
the  derived  word  shows  some  difference  from  it  in  meaning : 
embaizar,  kiss 

emharatar,  negotiate,  cheat  baratar,  traffic 

embarrar,^  inclose,  fence  in  barrar,  bar 

'II,  678:  "II  inarquo  le  lieu,  exprinie  I'idee  d'introduire,  de  se 
rendre  dans  quelque  chose,  puis  d'entrer  dans  quelque  etat;  de  \k  decoule 
directement  celle  d'etre  depourvu  d'une  quahte." 

-  In  texts  there  is  some  confusion,  so  that  sometimes  EM-  and  some- 
times EN-  is  used  before  labials,  and  Raynouard  often  gives  two  forms. 
When  not  before  labials,  however,  EN-  is  always  found. 

'A'possible  parasj'ntheton  formed  on  barra. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


433 


brivar,  hasten 
brucar,  stumble 

pasar,  pass 

pastar,  make  paste 

pauzar,  put 

pensar,  think 

plumar,  pluck  oflf  feathers 


emblasmar,  accuse  blasmar,  blame 

emborrar,  stuff,  pad 

embriar,^  hasten 

embruiar,'^  stumble  ( ?) 

empalhar,^  cover  with  straw 

empasar,  make  pass,  swallow 

empastar,^  cover  with  paste 

empauzar,  impose 

empensar,*  invent,  devise 

emplumar,^  provide  with  feathers 

empoizonar,^  poison 

empujar,]  rise 

With  the  prefix  EN-  are  found 

enagrandar,  enlarge 

'enantar,  dishonor 

enastrar,^  endow  with  happy  star 

enausar,  raise 

enauzelar,  hunt  birds 

enavansar,  release,  acquit;  draw 

near  (?) 
enazirar,  detest 
encadenar,^  enchain 
encambiar,  deceive 
encaptivar,^  take  captive 
encastrar,''  castrate 
encausar,  drive  away 
enclavar,  injure  (horse  in  shoeing)       clavar,  nail 


astrar,  influence  by  stars 


avansar,  advance 


cadenar,  chain 
cambiar,  change 


1  For  the  disappearance  of  the  v,  see  th«  remark  under  hria,  in  Levy, 
I,  165. 

2  See  Stiehel,  39. 

3  Possible  parasyntheta  formed  on  palha  and  pasta. 

*  A  Lat.  impensare  is  found,  but  with  a  different  meaning.  Empen- 
sar  seems  to  have  been  formed  on  the  Prov.  pensar,  to  think. 

'  Possible  parasyntheta. 

6  Both  enastrar  and  astrar  are  found  only  in  the  past  participle. 

'  The  noun  incastratura  is  found  in  Lat.,  but  no  verb.  Encastrar, 
inclose,  enshrine,  is  a  suffix-formation  on  encastre,  pyx. 


t  Verbs  beginning  with  EM-,  beside  which  a  simple  verb  is  found, 
but  whose  meaning  clearly  proves  them  to  be  parasyntheta,  are  embotar 
(beside  botar),  embregar  (beside  bregar),  and  emhrocar  (beside  brocar). 
See  the  parasyntheta  (p.  509)  for  these  words. 


434 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


encoljMr,^  accuse 
encoinpnnhar,-  accompany 
encorbar,-  bend,  curve 
encordar,^    provide    with 

bind  with  cords 
encoronar,^  crown 
endisciplinar,  discipline 
endomesgar,  tame 
endresar,-  set  up 
enfelenar,  stir  up,  incite 
enferrar,  provide  with  iron  or  bind 
enfiar,^  trust 
enfixar,  sew  in,  fix  in 
enfumar,^  fill  with  smoke 
enfustar,^  cover  with  planks 
engardar,  protect 
engatjar,  engage,  pledge 
engavanhar  (se),  be  corrupted 
englozar,  reveal,  disclose 
engranar,^  put  corn  in  mill-hopper 
engrezar,  foul,  soil 
engroisar,^  become  stout 
enguiar,  guide 
enirar,^  get  angry  at 
enjoncar,  scatter,  strew 
enlaizar  (se),  become  dirty 
enlardar,^  stuff  with  lard 
enlauzar,  cover  with  stones 


cords,     cordar,  cord,  measure 


felenar,  be  angry  ( ?  )^ 


fixar,  fix 
fumar,  smoke 


gatjar,  attach,  fine 
gavanhar,  destroy 
glozar,  gloss 
granar,  produce  corn 
grczar  (?)  (greza,  tartar?) 
grosar,  engross 


laizar,  soil 
lardar,  to  lard 


■  The  past  participles  inculpatus  and  incoronatus  are  found  in  Lat., 
but  the  in  is  here  merely  the  negative  particle  prefixed  to  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  culpare  and  coronare. 

2  The  similarity  of  the  prefixes  A-  and  EN-  is  shown  by  the  existence 
of  encompanhar,  encorbar,  endre{i)sar,  and  enfiar  beside  acompanhar, 
acorbar,  adreisar,  and  afiar,  with  exactly  the  same  meanings.  In  the 
case  of  EN.  companhar,  the  form  with  A-  is  found  in  the  other  languages, 
and  the  one  with  EN-  seems  limited  to  Prov.  In  that  of  kn-  fi^^^t  the 
other  languages  show,  instead  of  either  of  these  prefixes,  forms  with  CON-. 

5  Encordar  is  a  probable  parasyntheton. 

*  In  the  example,  felenar  is  used  as  a  noun,  but  it  is  probably  the 
infinitive  used  as  a  noun.     See  p.  129,  above.  Levy,  II,  488  and  III,  428. 

*  The  past  participle  infumatus  is  found  in  Lat.  but  not  the  infinitive. 
«  Possible  parasyntheta. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


435 


enlevar,^  take  away 

enliamar,  bind,  entwine 

eninalholar,^  wrap  up,  envelop 

enmesclar,  mingle 

enmolhar,  soak,  soften 

enmontar,  mount 

enmurar,^  immure 

enoliar,  give  extreme  unction  to 

enozar,  bind,  tie 

enraigar,  enroot 

enramar,^  plant  with  leaves 

enrazonar,  reason 

enrigotar,  curl  (hair) 

enrolar,  enroll 

ensanglentar,  make  bloody 

ensangnar,  redden  with  blood^ 

ensegurar,'^  assure 

ensermonar,  advise,  warn 

enserrar,  lock  up 

ensolasar,^  give  comfort 

entacar,^  soil,  spot 

entalentar,^  desire 

entalhar,  notch,  cut 

entaular,^  put  on  (or  sit  at)  table 

entravar,  shackle,  fetter 

entraversar  (se),      place      oneself 

across  ( ?) 
entrelhar,  spread  like  vines 
entrencar,  break,  cut 
entresar,  intertwine 
entristar,^  sadden 
envernisar,^  varnish 


levar,  raise 


molhar,  wet 

murar,  wall  up 
oliar,  oil,  anoint 

*raigar,    enroot    (only    radigar^ 

found) 
ramar,  grow  green 


rolar,  roll 
sangnar,  bleed   . 


serrar,  press,  confine 
solasar,  cheer 


taular,  put  at  table 
traversal',  cross 

tresar,  weave 


1  The  difference  in  meaning  between  the  simple  and  the  derived 
verb  is  due  to  the  fact  that  EN-  here  represents  not  IN-  but  INDE-. 

2  Variants  are  enmalhorar  and  enmalhotar  (of.  Fr.  emmailloter) . 

3  Possible  parasyntheta. 

« Another  example  of  the  similarity  and  confusion  between  A-  and 
EN-,  as  described  above  in  encompanhar,  encorbar,  etc.  Here,  as  there, 
the  form  with  A-,  instead  of  EN-,  is  the  one  that  is  found  in  the  other 
languages. 

^  Possible  parasyntheta.  Entalentar  is  fouiad  only  in  the  past 
participle  entalentat. 


436  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

enversar,  overturn  versar,  turn,  spread 

environar,  go  aroiuid 

envolopar,  envelop 

envoludar^  (sc),t  wallow,  welter  voliidar,  roll 

New  formations  are  rare  among  the  other  conjugations 
except  that  ending  in  -ir. 

Of  the  verbs  ending  in  -er,  there  is  apparently  only 
one  formed  by  the  prefix  EN- : 

enfenher,  f  f  f cngn 

EM-  and  EN-  form  new  verbs  in  -re  in  the  following 

cases : 

embatre  (se),  plunge,  rush  balre,  beat 

etnprendre,  undertake  prendre,  take 

'  The  past  participle  involutum  exists  in  Lat.,  but  envoludar  seems 
simply  to  be  formed  on  voludar <volutare  by  means  of  EN-,  an  ordinary 
prefix-formation. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  EM-  or  EN-  and  the  ending 
-ar  are:  empachar  (or  empedegar)  pTevGnKimpedicare;  empegar,  starch 
<impicare;  eniplorar,  implore Kiinplor are;  enamorar,  ena.moT <inamorare; 
encantar,  enchant  <Micantore;  encriminar,  incriminate  <z«.crMnfnare; 
endurar,  harden  <indurare;  enebriar,  inebriate  <inebriare;  enescar, 
entice <inescare;  enficiar  (apparently  an  alteration  of  enfecir,  infect) 
<inficere;  enformar,  iniorm<informare;  enlasar,  entwine <illaqueare; 
enlumenar,  illuminate  <illuminare;  enombrar,  darlien  <inutnbrare;  enor- 
iar,  exhort <inhortari;  ensertar,  grait<insertare;  and  envocar,  invoke  < 
invocare.  Words  probably  of  Lat.  origin  are  empellar,  graft<*impelli- 
tarei?)  and  emprumtar,  borrow <*imprumutare.  Obscure  words  are 
emploirar,  excite(?),  endoscar,  make  soft(  ?)  or  polish(?),  and  envoiar 
(obscure  in  meaning).  Stichel,  43,  derives  endoscar  from  *indulcicare, 
but  this  seems  improbable.  Envoiar  is  possibly  only  a  gallicism  for 
enviar.  See  Levy,  III,  113.  A  word  in  which  EM-  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  something  else  is  emblidar.  The  usual  form  is  oblidar,  coming 
regularly  from  oblitare.  Levy  lists  also  a  form  omblidar.  This  last 
form  probably  represents  a  confusion  between  the  other  two,  the  con- 
fusion being  furthered  by  the  common  interchange  of  e  and  o  in  an  initial 
syllable,  particularly  before  m.     See  Grandgent,  art.  44,  sec.  1. 

tt  For  the  other  Prov.  words  in  -er,  Lat.  etymons  are  found,  as 
empenher<iynpingere,  enf ranker  <inf ringer  e,  entcnher  <intingerc .  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  cmpenher  did  not  split  up  into  its  elements  and 
become  empanher,  like  the  others.  This  is  possibly  due  to  confusion 
with  another  verb  penher < pingere.  Enfenher  is  probably  of  Lat.  origin 
also. 


Formation  of  Verbs  437 

encreire,  believe  creire,  believe 

enderdre,  f  set  up,  raise 

Used  with  verbs  in  -ir,  EM-  and  EN-  are  found  in : 

embair^  (se),  be  full  of  care 

embastir,  bring  about  bastir.  build 

embrugir,  divulge,  rumor  briigir,  make  noise 

empentir,  repent 

enaigrir,  become  sour 

enardir,  embolden 

enavantir,^  celebrate  avantir,  advance 

encobir,^  covet 

encomburir,  biu-n 

enfoletir,*  make  fun  of  folatir,  sport 

enfrevolir,  weaken 

enlenir,^  soften 

enorgolhozir,^  make  proud 

enribaudir,^  lead  a  ribald  life  ribaiidir,  make  shameless 

enriquir,^]'^  become  or  make  rich 

Used  with  verbs  in  -ezir,  EM-  and  EN-  are  frequently 
used.  Other  prefixes  are  scarcely  ever  found  in  combina- 
tion with  this  suffix. 

emaigrezir,^  make  thin  maigrezir,  grow  thin 

enfeblezir,  weaken 

1  Bair  is  not  found  except  in  the  past  participle  bait,  in  one  example 
where  it  seems  to  mean  "crushed." 

2  This  word  may  possibly  be  formed  of  the  phrase  en  avant  +IR  (thus 
a  hybrid),  or,  of  course,  it  may  be  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  avant. 

3  Encohir  is  a  hard  form  to  account  for.  Encoheir  is  the  form  quoted 
by  Thomas  (Essais,  285)  from  Foerster's  edition  of  Girart  de  Rossillon, 
and  this  could  come  regularly  from  *incupidire. 

*  More  probably  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  folet. 

5  These  words  are  all  possible  parasyntheta  formed  on  the  simple 
adjective,  as  is  true  of  the  words  in  -EZIR  also. 

6  Emacrescere  and  intepescere  exist  in  Lat.  with  the  meanings  of  the 
Prov.  verbs,  but  these  words  will  not  do  phonetically  as  sources.  See 
p.  363,  above. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  are  emheure<imhihere,  endire<indicere,  empendre 
<impendere,    and    enmetre<immittere. 

tt  Words  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  EN-  and  the  ending  -ir 
are:  endormir,  put  to  sleep <indor77i ire;  enfecir,  iniect <inficere;  enferir, 
utter,  proclaim <m/erre  (with  change  of  conjugation) ;  cngenoir,  engender 
<ingenuere;    and  engerir,  intrude  <inger ere. 


438  Word-Formation  in  Proven^'al 

enmalezir,  become  bad 

ennoblezir,  ennoble 

entebezir,^  become  warm 

envergonhezir,  be  ashamed  vergonhezir,  shame 

Used  with  verbs  ending  in  -alhar,  -elhar,  etc.,  the  only 
sure  case  of  the  use  of  EN-  as  a  prefix  is  seen  in : 
engrondelhar  (se),t  scold,  grumble 

Used  with  a  verb  ending  in  -ejar,  EN-f orms : 
ensetilwrejar,  become  mighty  senhorejar,  master,  rule 

ENTRE- 

The  prefix  ENTRE-  from  the  Latin  INTER-  has  three 
well-defined  uses  in  French,  which  have  been  explained  by 
Darmesteter,^  who  has  pointed  out  that  from  the  original 
meaning  of  "  between  "^a  contact  between  one  thing  and 
the  middle  of  another — could  come  the  idea  of  reciprocity 
when  the  verb  was  used  with  the  reflexive  pronoun,  and 
also,  as  ENTRE-  means  "between,"  "in  the  middle  of," 
the  idea  of  half-doing  a  thing — uncompleted  action.  A  few 
examples,  also,  show  the  original  meaning  of  "between." 
Provengal  has  all  of  the  meanings  found  in  French.  Recip- 
rocal verbs  are  formed  by  the  prefix  ENTRE-  in  connec- 
tion with  -se,  the  origin  of  which  usage  Meyer-Liibke  finds 
in  the  Latin  construction,  inter  se,  with  a  verb.^  The 
use  of  ENTRE-  as  "half"  is  also  found  in  a  few  verbs  in 

1  See  n.  6,  p.  437. 

^  Mots  Composes,  112. 

'  II,  680.  Meyer-Liibke  is  wrong,  however,  in  stating  that  the 
phenomenon  is  almost  entirely  limited  to  northern  Fr.,  whereas  it  is  not 
unusual  in  Prov. 


t  For  endentelhar,  see  parasyntheta,  p.  510.  Another  word,  cntor- 
rolhar,  however,  is  a  puzzle.  Levy  corrects  it  to  entoriolhar,  which  brings 
it  near  in  form  to  the  Fr.  entortiller,  whose  meaning  it  has.  This  was 
probably  formed  on  the  adjective  tortilis,  as  was  the  Sp.  entortijar. 
Entortolhar,  if  such  a  word  exists,  was  probably  formed  on  tortulus, 
instead  of  tortilis,  from  tortus. 


Formation  of  Verbs  439 

-ir,  as  entrauzir,  entredormir,  and  the  original  force  of 

"between,"    "among"    in    entrelasar    and    entremesclar. 

Provengal  seems  also  to  have  added  the  prefix  to  words 

which  it  changes  in  no  way,   perhaps  bemg  originally 

added  to  verbs  which  by  themselves  had  something  of 

the  force  of  ENTRE-,  as  forcar.     Entregachar  and  entre- 

muzar  do  not  differ  in  meaning  from  gachar  and  muzar. 

The  lists  follow. 

ENTRE-  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -ar  in: 

entramar  (se),  love  one  another  amar,  love 

entrebalhar,  leap  around  balhar,  dance 

entrecelar,  warn,  protect  celar,  conceal 

entreforcar,  fork,  branch  off  forcar,  fork 

entregachar,  watch,  guard  gachar,  watch 

entregelar,  half-freeze  gelar,  freeze 

entrelaisar,  interrupt  laisar,  leave,  let 

entrela.sar,  interlace  lasar,  wind,  bind 

entremesclar,  intermingle  niesclar,  mix 

entremuzar,  be  idle  muzar,  trifle,  loiter 

entr{e)oblidar,^  forget  oblidar,  forget 

entreparaular,  converse  paraular,  talk 

entrepauzar,  interpose  pauzar,  put,  place 

entrequitar"^  (se),    converse    freely  guitar,  quit,  abandon 

with  one  another 

entretalhar,  carve  out  talhar,  cut 

entretriar,  unload,  relieve,  gather  trior,  gather,  harvest 

entrevironar,\     encompass,      sur-  vironar,  go  around 

round 

ENTRE-  is  used  also  with  verbs  ending  in  -re  and  -ir. 

^  Entroblidar  is  translated  by  Raynouard  as  "inwardly  forget," 
and  the  O.  Fr.  entr'oublier  by  Godefroy  as  "forget  for  some  time,"  i.e., 
"half-forget."  The  only  meaning  that  can  be  gleaned  from  the  Prov. 
examples,  however,  is  simply  "to  forget." 

2  In  spite  of  the  form  of  the  word,  its  base  is  undoubtedly  aquilar 
and  not  quitar.  We  should  expect  entraquitar  as  the  derived  word,  but 
there  must  have  been  some  confusion  with  quitar,  leave.  The  Fr. 
s'entrequitter,  formed  on  quitter,  means  only  "leave  one  another." 


t    An  obscurely  formed  word  is  entrebescar,  which  seems  to  mean 
'to  intertwine." 


440  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Prefixed  to  verbs  in  -re,  it  is  found  mostly  in  verbs 
formed  in  Latin.     A  probable  new  formation  is : 
entreprendre,]  seize,  grasp^  prendre,  take 

It  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -ir  in : 

entrauzir,  half-hear  auzir,  hear 

entredormir,  doze  dormir,  sleep 

entreferir  (se),  strike  one  another  ferir,  strike 

entregarnir,  adorn,  ornament  garnir,  furnish 

entr{e)obrir,  half-open  obrir,  open 

-ES 

The  Provengal  ES--  from  the  Latin  EX-  may  be 
classed  with  the  prefixes  A-,  DE-,  DES-,  and  EN-  as  a 
form  that  frequently  became  so  weakened  as  to  bring 
no  change  to  the  verb  to  which  it  was  added.  Of  these, 
it  is  closest  in  meaning  to  DES-,  and  there  are  many 
pairs  of  words  beginning  with  DES-  and  ES-  that  have 
exactly  the  same  meaning.  The  development  of  meaning 
of  the  two  is  also  very  similar.  EX-  had  at  first  just  the 
force  which  belonged  to  it  as  a  preposition — that  is, 
it  meant  "from"  or  "out  of,"  and  is  found  in  such  words 

1  The  same  meaning  as  in  O.  Fr.  Meycr-Lubke,  II,  680,  explains 
the  meaning  of  the  Mod.  Fr.  word  as  being  influenced  by  the.  Germ. 
unternehmen. 

*  ES-  is  regularly  found  as  the  Prov.  prefix  in  words  of  Lat.  origin 
having  in  Lat.  both  EX-  and  E-,  the  latter  having  changed  back  at  the 
time  of  the  word's  recomposition  to  EX-,  for  which  it  stood.  Thus 
Meyer- Liibke  points  out  in  Lat.  times  examples  of  exlegere  and  exmulgcre 
for  elegere  and  emulgere.  ES-  is  not,  however,  the  only  form  of  EX-  found 
in  Prov.  Grandgent  (art.  55)  states  that  EX-  became  ES-  before  any- 
consonant  but  s,  but  that  EX-  +s  apparently  became  EX-  or  ESS- 
(Prov.  EIS-  or  ES-).  Grandgent  says  nothing  about  the  development 
of  EX-  when  preceding  vowels,  but  Levy  seems  to  follow  the  rule  of 
writing  EIS-  before  a  vowel  or  s  and  ES-  before  all  other  consonants. 
This  is  the  rule  that  will  be  followed  here. 


t  Enirecluire,  shut  in<intercludere;  entredire,  interdict <interdicerc; 
enlremetre  (se),  interposeKiniermittere;  entrerompre,  interrupt <interrum- 
pere;  and  entrelraire,  deriveKinterlrahcre  are  of  Lat.  origin. 


Formation  of  Verbs  441 

as  excludere,  excurre,  etc.  From  this,  it  might  easily 
pass  to  the  meaning  of  negation,  as  did  DIS-,  and  this 
meaning  is  found,  but  in  other  languages  rather  than  in 
Provengal,  as  for  example  in  Italian,  in  which  S-  from  EX- 
came  to  be  the  principal  prefix  of  negative  force.  In 
Provengal  there  are  several  words,  such  as  escargar, 
escelar,  esfilar,  and  esliar,  which  are  the  direct  opposites 
of  the  verb  without  the  prefix,  but  in  most  of  them  the 
original  separative  force  may  clearly  be  seen.  Thus 
esfilar,  unravel,  as  opposed  to  filar,  spin,  or  esfolhar,  strip 
off  leaves,  as  opposed  to  folhar,  put  forth  leaves.  DES- 
from  the  Latin  DIS-  remains  the  important  negative 
prefix. 

Thus  the  original  force  of  the  prefix  is  more  persistent 
in  the  Provengal  representative  of  the  Latin  EX-  than 
of  DIS-.  It  is  preserved  in  full  vigor  in  such  words  as 
esbrancar,  esclapar,  esgotar,  eslargar,  estirar,  estrencar, 
esdire  and  esmetre,  besides,  of  course,  in  many  parasyn- 
theta.  Yet  ES-,  like  the  other  prefixes  mentioned,  has 
undergone  a  weakening  in  many  cases  so  that  there  are 
words  in  which  it  adds  nothing  at  all  to  the  original 
verb,  and  this  loss  of  force,  if  not  as  usual  as  in  A-  and 
DE-,  is  much  more  common  than  in  DES-.  Even  inten- 
sive force  may  be  found  in  some  words,  such  as  espesar, 
break  to  bits,  and  could  come  about  in  the  same  way 
that  it  originated  in  the  other  prefixes,  from  the  nature 
of  the  word  to  which  the  prefix  was  added.  To  give  an 
example  of  a  word  already  existing  in  Latin,  excoquere 
(Provengal  escocer)  means  'Ho  cook  to  pieces,"  in  which 
case  both  meanings  of  the  prefix  may  be  seen.^  It  is 
thus  clear  that  there  can  be  no  exact  dividing  line  between 
the  various  meanings  of  any  of  these  prefixes,  but  that 

1  That  is,  separative  and  intensive. 


442  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

they  merge  into  one  another.'  All  of  tlie  words  in  the 
list  will  come  under  one  head  or  another,  although  there 
are  some  words  which  appear  to  have  rather  special 
meanings. - 

Since  so  many  prefixes  had  lost  their  force  and  gave 
no  new  meaning  to  the  verb  with  which  they  were  used, 
the  substitution  of  one  for  another  was  natural.  Thus, 
besides  the  interchange  of  ES-  and  DES-,  ES-  with  its 
loss  of  force  is  sometimes  substituted  for  EN-.  Thus 
beside  enmurar  (Latin  Hmmurare)  is  found  esmurar,  beside 
envelopar,  esvelopar,  and  beside  emhlesmar,  eshlesmar. 
Other  kinds  of  substitution  will  be  noticed  in  the  lists. 

EIS-  (or  EX- + vowel  or  s)  is  found  in  the  following 

verbs  in  -ar: 

eisalegrar,  cheer,  rejoice 

eisampliar,  increase  ( ?)  ampliar,  make  ample 

eisarrar,^  confuse 

eisausar,  raise,  exalt 

eisivernar*  support  during  winter    ivernar,  to  winter 

eisoblidar,  forget 

eisor6ar,t  blind 

ES-  is  found  in  the  rest  of  the  verbs  in  -ar: 

esbadar,  yawn  badar,  open 

esblasmar,  become  weak  blasmar,  turn  pale 

esborrar,*  take  away  the  floss  or  borrar,  provide  with  floss,  stuff, 

flock  pad 

esbrancar,^  strip  of  branches,  take  brancar,  put  forth  branches 

away 

1  Cooper,  275. 

2  Thus  escambiar,  esfulsar,  esforsar,  esviolar,  esbatre,  esprendre,  and 
esbrugir. 

3  The  past  participle  eisarrat  is  the  only  form  found,  and  seems  to 
mean  "confused,"  "irresolute,"  and  to  be  formed  on  a  verb  arrar, 
meaning  "to  arrange." 

*  Probable  parasyntheta  formed  on  ivern,  borra,  and  branc.  Esbastar 
will  be  found  listed  only  under  parasyntheta  (p.  512),  although  bastar 
exists,  but  with  a  totally  different  meaning  from  that  of  the  compound. 

tOf  Lat.  origin  there  is  eissugar,  wipe< exsucare. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


443 


esbrivar,  become  violent,  quarrel 
escabosar,  plunge  under 
escairar,  square 
escaitivar,  conquer 

escalhar,^  break  apart 

escambiar,  exchange 

escancelar,  destroy 

escargar,  discharge 

escavalcar,  ride 

escelar,  clear  up,  enlighten 

esclapar,  hew,  cut  down 

escolpar,  accuse 

escomensar,  begin 

esconfortar  (se),  refresh  oneself 

esconsirar,  view,  consider 

escrear,  nominate,  appoint 

escrevantar,  overturn 

escridar,  call 

esdreisar,  make  straight 

esfalsar,  fail,  perish  (  ?) 

esfelenar,  irritate;    (se),  strive 

esfilar,  unravel 

esfolhar,"^  strip  of  leaves 

esfondrar,  overturn,  precipitate 

esformar,  form,  portray 

esforsar,    strengthen;    with    se  = 

strive 
esgachar,  look  at,  notice 
esgaimentar,  lament 
esgarar,  look  at 
esgardar,  look  at,  consider 
esgotar,  drain 
esgrafinar,  scratch 
eslaisar  (se),  let  oneself  go,  hurry 
eslansar,  throw,  dart 
eslargar,  spread  out 
eslevar,  raise,  exalt 
esliar,  detach,  unbind 
eslongar,  remove,  delay 

1  See  Stichel,  24  and  49. 

2  A  possible  parasyntheton. 


brivar,  press 


caitwar    (only    captivar  found), 

captivate 
calhar,  unite 
cambiar,  change 
cancelar,  cancel 
cargar,  charge,  load 


celar,  conceal 


consirar,  think 
crear,  create 

cridar,  cry  out 

falsar,  falsify 
felenar  (se),  be  angry 
filar,  spin 
folhar,  bloom 
fondrar,  destroy 

forsar,  force 


gotar,  drop 
laisar,  let,  allow 
largar,  let  run 
liar,  bind 


444 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


estnurar,  wall  up 

espasar,  pass,  finish,  go  away 

espauzar,^  expose 

espelar,  strip  of  hair 

espesar,  break  to  pieces 

esplanar,  polish 

espresar,-  specify,  say  expressly 

esproar,  test,  verify 

espitdar,^  spit  out 

estalentar,^  take  away  inclination 

estersar,'^  clean  ( ?)  or  divide  into 

three  ( ?) 
estirar,  stretch 
estornar,  turn  aside 
estrencar,  cut  off,  separate 
estrepar,  crush,  trample  on 
estrobar,^  resist  ( ?) 
esludar,^  put  out 
esventar,  be  windy,  blow 
esvergonhar,  humiliate,  dishonor 
esviolar     (una    maizon),    break 

into  (a  house) 
esvironar,  encompass,  surround 
esvolopar,  envelop 
esvojar,  f  annul,  declare  null 


pauzar,  put 
pesar,  break 


talenlar,  deske 

tersar,  divide  into  three 

tirar,  pull 
tornar,  turn 
trencar,  cut 

trobar,  find;  compose 


violar,  violate 


vojnr,  empty 


» Espauzar  like  pauzar  was  influenced  in  meaning  by  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  ponere. 

-  Espresar  and  espudar  are  formed  on  the  past  participle  of  the  Lat. 
verbs  exprimere  and  exspuere. 

'  A  possible  parasyntheton. 

*  Levy  gives  the  meaning  of  "clean,"  and  suggests  the  correction  to 
esterser  (<Lat.  extergere).  But  the  formation  on  tersar  from  ters,  a  third, 
seems  more  probable,  and  the  meaning  of  "divide  into  three"  fits  the 
passage  well.     (See  Levy,  III,  321.) 

6  Levy  gives  the  word  with  a  question-mark. 

6  Given  by  Raynouard  as  estuzar,  but  corrected  by  Levy.  The 
formation  is  clear. 


t  There  are  also  many  words  having  the  prefix  ES-  and  ending  in 
-ar  that  are  not  of  Prov.  formation. 

The  words  clearly  of  Lat.  origin  are:  escalfar,  hesit<excalfacere; 
escomenjar  and  escumergar,  excommunicate  <ea;co7n?nMnmre  and  excom- 
municare;      escorjar,     fiay  <cxcoriare;      cspachar,     expedite  <expactiare; 


Formation  of  Verbs  445 

Aside  from  the  verbs  in  -ar,  ES-  is  hardly  found  as  a 

Provengal  prefix,  except  when  used  with  the  verbs  in  -ir. 

Thus,  joined  to  the  verbs  in  -er,  it  is  found  only  in: 

escazer,  devolve  on,  befall  cazer,  fall 

estener]  (se),  hold  oneself  back  tener,  hold 

and  joined  to  verbs  in  -re,  only  in: 

esbatre  (se),  gambol,  frolic  batre,  beat 

esperdre,  discourage  perdre,  lose 

esprendre,]\  inflame,  set  afire  prendre,  take 


espectar,  await <exspectare;  espensar,  spend<expensare.  Here  should 
be  included  certain  words  of  Lat.  origin  recomposed  in  Prov.,  as:  esmen- 
dar,  emend  <etnendare;  esraigar,  uprootKeradicare;  and  esvigorar, 
strengthen  <ei;t^orare.  In  certain  other  words,  a  new  prefix  is  found  to 
have  been  substituted  in  Prov.  for  the  Lat.  one,  as  ES-  for  DE-  in  escapitar, 
behead,  and  for  IN-  in  escorporar,  incorporate.  In  esmaginar,  the  ES- 
is  due  to  a  confusion  of  the  e  of  emaginar  (  Lat.  imaginare)  with  the  e 
representing  EX-. 

Words  probably  of  Lat.  origin  are  as  follows:  escarchar,  toar< 
*exquarticare;  escorchar,  sh.orten.<*excurticare{?);  escorchar,  flay  (see 
also  escorjar,  above)  <*excorticare;  espanchar,  pour  out<*expandicare; 
and  estonar,  stun  (only  past  participle  found)  <*e.T<o/iare. 

Words  in  which  only  a  stem  can  be  seen  are  eslugar,  light  up,  formed 
on  luc  (seen  in  lucere,  etc.)  and  esmagar,  disturb,  formed  on  the  Germ, 
stem  mag. 

A  word  in  which  the  prefix  -ES  is  only  apparent  is  estreisar,  tighten 
<istrictiare. 

A  word  obscure  in  formation  is  estalvar,  happen.  Esbaudanar  is 
obscure  in  meaning  as  well. 

For  estalbiar  and  estanhar  see  the  verbal  suffix  -AR,  p.  336. 

t  Other  words  in  -er  of  Lat.  origin  are  esfranher,  estenher,  esterzer, 
and  estrenher.  Esfranher  is  effringere  recomposed.  Estenher  is  froni 
stinguere,  esterzer  from  extergere,  and  estrenher  from  stringere.  The 
ES-  of  estenher  and  estrenher  is  therefore  not  a  prefix  at  ail. 

tt  AH  of  the  above  words,  and  escazer  in  -er  have  corresponding  forms 
in  Fr.  There  are  a  good  many  words  in  -re  of  Lat.  origin.:  esbeure< 
ebibere,  esclaure<excludere,  escodre<excutere,  escoire<excoquere,  escorre 
<excurrere,  esdire<edicere,  esmetre <emittere,  esmolre <eniolere,  end  espendre 
<expendere.  Esbeure,  esclaure,  esdire,  esmetre,  and  esmolre  are  recom- 
posed. Estruire  is  from  instruere,  with  the  n  assimilated  to  the  s. 
Estuire,  shut  in,  is  obscure. 

A  word  with  the  prefix  ES-  and  ending  in  -eiser  is  also  found — • 
espereiser,  apparently  derived  from  expigrescere. 


446  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

It  is  used  with  verbs  in  -ir  in : 

esbolhir  (se),  become  heated  bolhir,  boil 

esbrugir,  become  known  brugir  (bruzir),  make  noise 

esbrunir,  become  chirk  brunir,  darken 

escauzir,  remark  cauzir,  see 

escobrir,  disclose,  make  free  cobrir,  cover 

escolhir,  prepare  colhir,  collect 

escolorir,  discolor  colorir,  become  colored 

escroisir,  break,  crush 

esfrezir,  cool 

esgrazir,  receive  with  pleasure  grazir,  accept 

esjauzir,  rejoice 

esmarrir,  sadden 

esparlir,  divide,  separate 

estremir,  f  make  tremble  tremir,  tremble 

Used  with  verbs  in  -ezir,  ES-  is  found  in: 

esbrunezir,  become  dark  brunezir,  darken 
esclarzir,  brighten 
esferezir,  anger,  frighten 

It  is  found  prefixed  to  a  verb  in  -ejar  in: 

espesejar,  unroll,  release  pesejar,  break 


FOR- 

The  Provengal  prefix  FOR-  from  the  Latin  FORIS- 
gives  Httle  trouble  as  to  meaning.  FORIS-,  which  was 
notused  in  composition  in  Latin,  meant  "out  of,"  "out," 
and  these  meanings  are  seen  in  the  Provencal  and  also 
the  French  forms.  The  only  development  of  meaning  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  from  the  meaning  "out  of,"  "out  of 
reason,"  it  has  come  to  mean  "wrongly."     In  foreisir,  the 

t  Of  Lat.  origin  (rcconiposed)  is  esluzir,  shine  forth  <eZMcere. 

An  obscure  word  is  escantir,  extinguish.  Korting  (No.  3,336) 
derives  it  from  excandere,  which,  of  course,  does  not  account  for  the  t. 

Words  of  Germ,  origin  in  which  the  prefix  ES-  is  only  apparent 
are  escanV,  accord,  destine;  escarnir,  ridicule;  escrewiV,  protect;  esmeutir, 
defecate;    and  esparnir,  spHt. 

Esmair,  esquivir,  (see  p.  347,  n.  f),  estornir,  and  cstrangir,  are  prob- 
ably formed  by  means  of  the  suffix  -IR. 


Formation  of  Verbs  447 

prefix,  from  the  nature  of  the  simple  verb,  can  have  no 

force.     The  examples  are: 

forgitar,  throw  out  gitar,  throw 

forjurar,^  abjure,  renounce  jurar,  swear 

forjutjar,  judge  wrongly  jutjar,  judge 

forosiar,  put  out;  excite  ostar,  take  away 

forsenar,  f  rave,  be  crazy  senar,  be  sensible 

FOR-  is  also  prefixed  to  verbs  of  other  conjugations. 
It  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -re  in: 
forclaure,  shut  out  claure,  close 

fordure,  show  out,  refuse  duire,  lead 

forfaire,  forfeit,  fail  faire,  do 

fortraire,  take  away  (secretly  ?)         traire,  draw 

and  to  verbs  in  -ir  in : 

forbandir,  banish  bandir,  proclaim 

foreisir,  go  out  eisir,  go  out 

forvenir,  put  out,  overturn  venir,  come 

MES- 

The  Provencal  prefix  MES-  is  clearly  derived  from  the 
Latin  MINUS-,  and  has  depreciative  force — that  is,  it 
frequently  denotes  a  decline  or  retrogression  from  some 
better  position,  thus  retaining  to  some  extent  the  original 
force  of  the  adverb  minus.  Sometimes  only  negative 
force  is  perceptible,  as  in  mesconoiser,  but  more  often  the 
other  force  also  may  be  seen,  as  in  mesconitar,  mesparlar, 
etc.  The  examples  of  verbs  ending  in  -ar  are  as  follows: 
mescabar,  lack  cabar,^  finish,  achieve 

mescomtar,  miscount  comtar,  count 

mesparlar,  speak  badly,  slander        parlar,  speak 
mesprezar,  scorn,  disdain  prezar,  prize 

1  Compare  with  perjurar  in  meaning.  FOR-  still  has  here  its  mean- 
ing of  "out  of , "  " away  from, ' '  whereas  PER-  has  the  idea  of  ' '  wrongly ' ' 
or   "falsely." 

2  For  examples  of  ca6ar,  see  Stichel,23.  Mescato^r  was  probably  formed 
on  cabar,  though  it  may  have  been  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  cap,  head. 
It  is  probably  not,  however,  formed  on  mescap  as  Korting  (No.  6194) 
gives  it.     The  latter  is  either  a  postverbal  or  an  independent  formation. 

t  An  obscure  word  is  forescapiar. 


448  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

MES-  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -re  in : 

mescreire,  disbelieve  creire,  believe 

mesfaire,  do  wrong;,  offend  faire,  do 

mesprendre,  deceive;  be  mistaken     prendre,  take 

and  to  verbs  in  -eiser,  -oiser  in: 

mesconoiser ,  not  to  know  conoiser,  know 

and  to  verbs  in  -ir  in : 

mesfalhir,^  fail  falhir,  fail 

OLTRA-    (OUTRA-) 

The  Provengal  prefix  OLTRA-,  OUTRA-,  from  the 
Latin  ultra  is  used  in  forming  a  few  popular  verbs.  Its 
meaning  is  that  of  "beyond,"  "beyond  reason,"  as  is  seen 
in  oltracujar,  rave.  It  is  found  in  the  folloA\'ing  forma- 
tions : 

oltracujar,  rave  cujar,  think 

oltrapasar,  pass  limits  pasar,  pass 

oltrasalhir,  pass  beyond  salhir,  go  out 

PER- 

The  Provengal  prefix  PER-  comes  from  the  Latin 
prefix  PER-,  which  seems  to  have  had  several  different 
meanings.  Ordinarily,  in  composition  it  had  the  force  of 
"thoroughly,"  "through  and  through,"  or  "to  the  end," 
"completely,"-  and  also,  as  Darmesteter  points  out,-''  it 
seems  in  some  verbs  to  have  had  the  force  of  "here  and 
there,"  "around."  Most  of  these  meanings  are  found  m 
the  Provengal  words  which  have  come  down  from  Latin.* 

1  The  prefix  has  no  perceptible  force  here,  owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  verb  to  which  it  was  added.  For  non,  often  given  as  a  prefix,  see 
compound  words. 

s  But  this  purely  intensive  force  was  often  lost,  so  that  frequentlj' 
the  compound  hardly  differs  from  the  simple  verb.  This  is  also  true  of 
the  Prov.  formations.  In  perjurar,  the  prefix  had  the  meaning  of 
"falsely"  in  Lat. 

'  Mots  Composes,  114.  *  As  persegre,  perpensar,  etc. 


Formation  of  Verbs  449 

In  the  Provencal  formations,  of  which  there  are  but  few 
examples,  as  in  the  other  languages,  the  prefix  again  shows 
the  idea  of  "thoroughly"  or  carrying  to  an  end.  The 
meaning  of  "here  and  there"  seems  to  be  lacking. 

PER-  was  sometimes  substituted  for  other  prefixes, 
as  for  PRO-  in  perlongar.  All  cases  like  this  will  be 
indicated  in  the  following  lists. 

PER-  is  found  prefixed  to  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation 

in  the  following  examples : 

percantar,^  manage,  administer  cantar,  sing 

percasar,  seek,  seek  to  obtain  casar,  drive  away 

percolar,-  embrace  (colar) 

perdonar,  pardon  donar,  give 

perfilar,^  give  a  border  to  filar,  spin 

perfondar,^  plunge,  precipitate  (fondar) 

perforsar  (se),  make  an  effort  forsar,  force 

perfumar,  perfume  fiimar,  smoke 

pergardar,  look  at,  inspect  gardar,  look  at 

pergitar{  ?)  gitar,  tlirow 

pergostar,  taste  carefully  gostar,  taste 
perlongar,^  prolong 

peroliar,  give  extreme  unction  to  oliar,  oil 

perpauzar,  propose,  resolve  pauzar,  put,  place 

perportar,  report,  declare  portar,  carry 

perquitar,  give  satisfaction  guitar,  free,  acquit 

pertocar,  t  touch,  concern  tocar,  touch 

1  Cf .  decantar  with  the  same  meaning.  This  word  was  formed  in  Lat. 
on  cantar,  and  meant  originally  "to  stop  singing."  The  development  in 
meaning  is  not  thoroughly  clear,  but  as  PER-  and  DE-  both  often  had 
the  idea  of  thoroughness,  PER-  may  have  been  substituted  for  the 
original  prefix. 

2  Percolar  and  perfondar  are  almost  certainly  formed  on  the  nouns 
col,  neck,  and  fon,  bottom.  See  parasyntheta  (p.  514),  therefore.  The 
verbs  colar  and  fondar  exist,  but  are  not  directly  connected  with  the  de- 
rived verbs.     Perfilar  may  also  be  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  fil,  thread. 

3  Here  we  have  a  substitution  of  PER-  for  PRO-  (Lat.  prolongare). 


t  Verbs  ending  in  -ar  of  Lat.  origin  are:  perdurar,  last  forever< 
perdurare;  perscrutar,  investigate  thoroughly  <perscrutare;  perjurar,  swear 
falsely <peryMrare;  permudar,  exchange < per tiiutare;  pernochar,  spend  the 
night<pernoclare;  and  perpensar,  re&ectK per pensare. 


450  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

PER-  is  found  prefixed  to  verbs  in   -er   apparently 

only  in  verbs  of  Latin  origin,  f    It  is  prefixed  to  Provengal 

formations  in  -re,  however,  in  the  following  examples: 

perestendre,  stretch  out  estendre,  extend 

perfendre,  cleave  completely  fendre,  cleave 

perprendre,'\'\  grtxsp;  understand;  prendre,  take 
undertake 

and  to  verbs  in  -ir  in  the  following  examples: 

perbolhir,  parboil  bolhir,  boil 

percomplir ,  fulfil  complir,  fulfil 

perofrir,  offer  ofrir,  offer 

perregir  (se),  pass  one's  life,  live  regir,   rule 

persemr, ttt  deserve  servir,  serve 

and  to  verbs  in  -eiser  in : 

percreiser,  increase  cr eiser,  grow 

POR- 

The  Provencal  prefix  POR-  seems  to  be  found  in  but 
one  word,  in  which  it  means  "out  of,"  "away."  In  this 
case,  it  is  also  written  PORRE-,  and  seems  clearly  to  come 
from  the  Latin  PORRO-.     The  example  is : 

porgitar,^  throw  away,  dissipate        gitar,  throw 

PRO- 

The  prefix  PRO-  from  the  Latin  PRO-  is  almost  as  rare 
as  POR-  in  Provengal.     It  is  found  in  a  number  of  words 

1  This  is  also  written  as  two  words,  as  gilar  por.  It  is  clearly  a 
Prov.   formation. 


t  The  verbs  of  Lat.  origin  in  -er  are:  perplazer,  please <per placer e; 
pertener,  helongKpertinere;  pervenser,  oveicome <pervincere;  and  pervezer, 
foresee,  apparently  from  provider e  with  change  of  prefix. 

tt  Verbs  of  Lat.  origin  in  -re  are:  percorre,  run  through <percurre; 
permoure,  promote <promovere  (with  PER-  substituted  for  PRO-) ; 
and  pertraire,  drag,  draw <pertrahere. 

ttt  Verbs  of  Lat.  origin  ending  in  -ir  are:  perfccir,  finish <peryicere; 
perlegir,  TeadKperlegere;   and  perquerir,  seek  out<perquirere. 


Formation  of  Verbs  451 

derived  from  Latin/  but  apparently  in  only  one  new- 
formation.  Consequently  it  is  difficult  to  determine  its 
precise  force.     It  is  found  in: 

prodenhar,  aid,  defend  denhar,  deign,  approve 

RE- 

The  Romance  prefix  RE-,  coming  from  the  Latin  RE-, 
has  been  studied  with  particular  care  by  Darmesteter  in 
his  Mots  Composes,-  where  the  uses  of  the  Latin  prefix 
have  been  classified  under  six  headings  in  order  to  compare 
them  with  the  uses  of  the  French  prefix.  For  the  various 
meanings  of  the  prefix  in  Latin,  which  Darmesteter 
classifies  as  (1)  repetition,  (2)  re-establishment  in  a 
former  condition  or  position,  (3)  augmentation,  (4)  retro- 
gression (retirement  or  deterioration),  (5)  reaction  or 
opposition,  and  (6)  reciprocity  or  exchange,  he  finds 
examples  in  both  Old  and  Modern  French,  showing  how 
clearly  most  Romance  processes  of  word-formation  are 
but  continuations  of  processes  originating  in  Latin. ^ 
To  be  sure,  Darmesteter  does  give  one  usage  in  French 
not  existing  in  Latin,  according  to  which  the  prefix  has 
the  force  of  "on  my  part,"  "on  your  part,"  etc.,  according 
to  the  subject  of  the  verb,  but  this  usage  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  Old  French;  at  least  it  is  difficult  to  find  any 
positive    examples    of    it    in    Provengal.     The    various 

1  Thus  procurar<procurare,  prolo7igar<prolongare,  prometreKpro- 
mittere,  promover<promovere,  and  prohibir<prohibere. 

2  Pp.  115-20;  another  treatment  going  into  much  greater  detail  is 
Das  Prafix  RE  im  Franzosischen  (Weimar,  1904)  by  Max  Meinicke. 
The  headings  are  substantially  those  of  Darmesteter,  whose  simpler 
classification  will  be  followed  here. 

3  Meyer-Liibke,  II,  681,  says  that  the  idea  of  repetition,  or  doing  a 
thing  again,  has  disappeared  completely  in  Romance,  and  that  the  idea 
in  words  apparently  of  this  kind  is  always  one  of  change.  Surelj'-  this 
is  a  rather  broad  statement,  however.  Observe,  for  example,  the  list 
of  Prov.  words  under  Group  I,  and  compare  also  the  new  words  formed  in 
Fr. 


452  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

meanings  of  the  prefix  are  closely  allied,  however,  and 
it  is  often  difficult  to  decide  under  which  heading  to  place 
individual  verbs.  Darmesteter  has  traced  back  all  the 
meanings,  except  the  one  just  mentioned,  to  the  original 
idea  of  repetition,  the  clearest  and  most  usual  employment 
of  RE-,^  and  his  study  of  the  question,  although  purely 
theoretical,  seems  clear  and  plausible.  It  shoAvs  how  the 
various  meanings  were  derived  from  a  single  idea  in  Latin, 
and  the  words  formed  in  Romance  show,  for  the  most  part, 
some  one  of  the  Latin  meanings.  The  new  meaning 
given  for  Old  French  appears  to  be  exceptional,  but  it 
also  can  easily  be  derived  from  the  original  ones. 

The  prefix  RE-,  with  its  great  diversity  of  meanings, 
did  not  escape  the  fate  of  some  of  the  simpler  prefixes — 
that  of  losing  all  force  whatever.  In  the  Provencal  of  our 
period,  which  was  probably  not  very  different  from  the 
spoken  language,  RE-  still  has  most  of  the  Latin  mean- 
ings in  its  new  formations,  besides  existing  in  several 
words  in  which  it  shows  no  force  at  all.  This  loss  of 
force,  however,  took  place  naturally  enough  in  a  suffix 
with  such  varied  and  delicate  distinctions  of  meaning 
as  to  be  not  always  uatelligible  to  the  common  people,  who 
saw  in  some  of  these  words  no  force  in  the  prefix.  Con- 
sequently, we  find  in  Provengal  of  this  period  cases  where 
the  simple  word  and  the  meaningless  compound  exist 
side  by  side,  just  as  was  the  case  with  diminutive  suffixes. 
In  Modern  French,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  more  of 
a  distinction  to  be  made  between  the  literary  and  the 
popular  language.  The  latter  has  continued  to  form 
meaningless  compounds  by  means  of  RE-,  to  be  used 
instead  of  the  simple  verb.  The  literary  language  has 
attempted  to  keep  out  compounds  of  this  kind,  and  to  use 

'  Mots  Composes,  117. 


Formation  of  Verbs  453 

RE-  w  ith  iterative  force  only.  Yet  in  a  few  cases  the  com- 
pound word  has  crept  into  the  language,  and  in  these 
cases,  the  simple  word  tends  to  disappear,  as,  for  example, 
emplir  is  giving  way  to  remplir,  and  encontrer  to  rencontrer. 

The  uses  of  the  prefix  RE-  might  profitably  be  studied 
separately  for  each  of  the  Romance  languages.  Pro- 
vencal is  distinct  from  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  in 
not  using  RE-  before  other  prefixes,^  although  double  pre- 
fixes are  common  in  the  language.  RE-EM-  is  very  fre- 
quent in  the  other  three,  as  REM-,  REN-  in  French, 
RIM-  in  Italian,  and  RE-EM-  in  Spanish.-  Another 
difference  from  French  is  that  there  are  scarceh'  any  clear 
cases  of  words  in  Provengal  with  the  ideas  of  opposition 
or  reaction,  or  of  re-establishment. 

To  illustrate  the  different  uses  of  the  prefix  in  Pro- 
vengal, the  words  will  be  given  under  the  different  head- 
ings according  to  meaning,  although  shades  of  meaning 
are  often  so  delicate  that  classification  is  sometimes 
difficult. 

1.  Repetition  {Verbs  in  -ar) 

rebaizar,  kiss  again  baizar,  kiss 

recalar,  calm  again  calar,  calm,  silence 

reclavar,  close  again,  close  up  clavar,  close 

recomtar,  tell  again,  recount  comtar,  count,  relate 

reemprenhar,^  reimpregnate  emprenhar,  impregnate 

referrar,  re-iron  ferrar,  bind  with  iron 

refilar,  spin  again  filar,  spin 

remanjar,  eat  again  ■manjar,  eat 

remaridar,  remarry  maridar,  marry 

renomnar,  rename  nomnar,  name 

1  Cf.  also  the  modern  language. 

2  Instead,  the  reverse  order  is  found,  however,  as  A-+RE-,  DE-  + 
RE-,  etc.     See  double  prefixes,  p.  491,  below. 

»  Apparently  there  are  two  prefixes  here,  but  emprenhar  (impregnare) 
was  formed  in  Lat.,  and  there  is  no  simple  verb  prenhar  in  Prov. 


454  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

Of  the  verbs  ending  in  -re,  there  is  only  refaire,  not 
formed  in  Latin,  and  this  is  a  recomposition  of  reficere. 

Under  -ir  there  is: 
recobrir,  recover  cobrir,  cover 

2.  Re-establishment 

Verbs  of  this  class  seem  to  be  entirely  lacking,  with  the 
possible  exception  of: 

rehailar,  give  back,  or  give  again  ( ?)    bailar,  deliver,  give 

3.  Augmentation 

reconfortar,  strengthen,  revive  confortar,  comfort 

redoptar,  fear,  dread  doptar,  doubt 

remolhar,  wet  through  molhar,  wet 

retroncar{f) ,  cut  short,  cut  off  troncar,  cut 

4.  Retrogression  {removal,  retirement) 

rebotar,  push  back  bolar,  push 

remenar,  lead  back  menar,  lead 

repropchar,  reproach  propchar,  approach 

relirar,    draw    back,    take  tirar,  draw 

away 

retornar,  return  tornnr,  turn 

revirar,  return,  turn  virar,  turn 

Under  verbs  in  -er,  there  is  only  refranher,  a  recom- 
position of  the  Latin  refringere. 

5.  Reaction,  Opposition 
Verbs  of  this  kind  seem  entirely  lacking  in  Provengal. 

6.  Reciprocity,  Exchange 
resemblar{?) ,  resemble  semblar,  seem 

Thus  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  are  any  Proven9al 
formations  of  either  of  the  last  two  classes. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


455 


7.  Prefix  with  no  force  at  all 

Words  of  this  kind  are  much  more  numerous  in  Pro- 
vencal than  those  belonging  to  any  of  the  classes  given 
by  Darmesteter.     Those  in  -ar  are  as  follows: 


refinar,  end,  cease 
refizar,  trust 
regardar,  look  at 
regazardonar,  reward 
rejostar,  bring  together 
relargar,  relax,  free 
remirar,  look  at 
repauzar,  place,  put,  rest^ 
resautar,  bound,  stamp 
(resautelhar) ,^  leap,  bound 
resaziar,  satiate 
restancar,  staunch,  stop  up 
retombar,  fall 
revironar,  surround 

Under  -re  are  found : 

repenedre,  repent 
rescondre,  hide 

Under  -ir  are  found : 

reblandir,  flatter 
refrezir,  cool 
repentir,  repent 
resentir,  feel,  experience 
retentir,^  resound 

Under  -ejar  are  found: 

reflamejar,  shine 
remercejar,  thank 


finar,  end 
fizar,  trust 
gardar,  look  at 
gazardonar,  reward 
jostar,  assemble 
largar,  let  run 
mirar,  look  at 
pauzar,  put 
sautar,  leap 

saziar,  satiate 
estancar,  staunch 
tombar,  fall 
vironar,  go  around 


penedre,  repent 
escondre,  hide 


blandir,  flatter 
frezir,  cool 
pentir,  repent 
sentir,  feel 
tentir,  resound 


flamejar,  shine 
mercejar,  thank 


1  Sometimes  with  the  meaning  of  "rest  oneself." 

2  No  simple  verb  sautelhar  is  found,  though  sautiller  exists  in  Fr. 
A  Prov.  sautelhar  may  have  existed,  or,  as  seems  probable,  resautelhar 
may  be  a  suffix-formation  on  resautar.  For  verbs  in  -ELHAR,  see 
p.  350. 

3  Cf.  repentir,  ressentir  and  retentir  in  Fr.,  from  which  the  simple  verbs 
pe?itir  and  te7itir  have  disappeared. 


456  Word-Formation  in  PROvENgAL 

SO- 

The  Provencal  prefix  SO-  from  the  Latin  SUB-  is 
very  rare  in  new  formations,  just  as  the  representatives  of 
SUB-  are  in  the  other  Romance  hmguages.  French  does 
not  appear  to  use  SUB-  at  all  to  form  new  verbs,  and 
Italian  and  Spanish  have  it  in  very  few  forms,  as,  for 
example,  in  Spanish  in  socalzar  and  sofreir,  and  in  Italian 
in  succhiudere,  etc.  The  only  new  formation  that  Pro- 
vencal appears  to  possess  is  sopartir,  divide,  distribute, 
with  little  difference  in  meaning  from  the  simple  verb 
partir,  perhaps,  however,  having  a  trace  of  the  idea  of 
subdivision.  Another  word  formed  in  Provengal,  with  no 
Latin  word  as  source  actually  found,  is  sojornar,  buti 
*subdiurnare  must  have  existed.^  The  real  Latin  forma- 
tions, on  the  other  hand,  tend  to  disappear  in  Provengal, 
though  many  of  them  have  persisted  in  French  and  else- 
where. Of  the  Provengal  words  with  SO-,  then,  sojornar 
and  sopartir  have  been  treated,  the  latter  probably 
having  been  formed  on  the  analogy  of  subdividere,  which 
later  disappeared.  Sofranher  is  a  recomposition  of  the 
Latin  suffringere;  and  sohrendre,  which  apparently  shows 
SOB-  instead  of  SO-  from  SUB-,  probably  represents 
SOBRE-  from  SUPER-  with  a  dropping  of  the  RE-  before 
the  re  of  rendre.  SUB-  tended  greatly  to  disappear  on 
account  of  the  gradual  substitution  of  the  longer  form, 
SUBTUS-.2 

SOBRE- 

The  Provengal  prefix  SOBRE-,  in  forming  new  verbs, 
gives  little  difficulty  as  to  meaning.  It  merely  retains 
the  meaning  of  the  Latin  preposition  super,  from  which  it 

1  Cf.  the  forms  in  the  other  Romance  languages. 

2  See  SOST-  and  SOTZ-,  pp.  458-59,  below. 


Formation  of  Verbs  457 

is  derived,  in  all  of  the  new  formations,  whether  SUPER- 
means  "over"  with  the  idea  of  place,  as  in  sobredaurar, 
or,  as  is  much  more  frequent,  with  the  idea  of  excess, 
or  at  least  large  quantity,  as  in  sobrelauzar,  sobretarzar, 
etc. 

SOBRE-  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -ar-  in: 

sohramar,  love  too  much  amar,  love 

sobravansar,      surpass,     go  avansar,  advance 

ahead  of 

sobrecochar,  hasten  (greatly)  cochar,  hasten 

sobrecujar,^  be  presumptuous  (?)  cujar,  think 

sobredaurar,  gild  over  daurar,  gild 

sobreforsar ,  make  great  effort  foraar,  force,  strive 

sobrelauzar,'^  overpraise  lauzar,  praise 

sobremontar,  surmount  montar,  mount 

sobr(e)onrar,  honor  highly  onrar,  honor 

sobreparlar,  talk  too  much  parlar,  talk 

sobreportar,  surmount  portar,  carry 

sobretarzar,  delay  greatly  tarzar,  delaj^ 

sobretemprar,  moderate  greatly  temprar,  moderate 

sobreversar,f    overflow,    super-  versar,  spread 

abound 

SOBRE-  s  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -er  in: 

sobreluzer,  shine  much  luzer,  shine 

sobresaber,^  know  much  saber,  know 

sobretemer,  fear  much  teener,  fear 

sobrevaler,  be  superior  to  valer,  be  worth 

1  Only  the  past  participle  is  found. 

=  The  adjective  superlaudabiUs  is  given  in  Georges'  dictionary,  as 
being  found  in  the  Vulgate. 

3  Supersapere,  from  which  sobresaber  could  come,  is  found,  but  has 
the  meaning  of  "have  an  excellent  taste,"  "to  taste"  being  the  original 
meaning  of  sapere.  Sobresaber  with  the  meaning  here  given  appears  to 
be  a  Prov.  formation. 


t  Words  with  the  prefix  SOBRE-  and  the  ending  -ar  of  Lat.  origin 
are,  sohrenadar,  Ro&Ksupeniatare,  and  sobre{e)ondar,  superabound< 
superabundare . 


458  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

and  to  verbs  in  -eiser  in: 

sobrepnreiser,]  appear  over  pareiser,  appear 

to  verbs  in  -re  in : 

sobreprendre,^f  surprise,  surround     prendre,  take 

SOST-,    SOTZ-,    SOZ-,    SOS- 

The  Latin  prefix  SUB-,  as  stated  above/  was  generally 
replaced  by  the  longer  form  SUBTUS-.  Even  this  form, 
however,  was  rarely  used  in  Provencal,  and  is  fomid  in  very 
few  words.  SUBTUS-  took  several  developments  in 
Provencal,  as  SOTZ-,  the  phonetic  development,  and 
another  form  SOST-,  which  occurs  in  very  few  words 
and  was  probably  only  a  dialect  difference  from  SOTZ-, 
showing  a  metathesized  form.  The  only  real  examples 
of  the  form  appear  to  be  sostmonir,  found  in  the  Bur- 
gundian  Girart  de  RossiUon,  and  sostcavar  in  Peire  Cardenal. 
Sostmo7iir  is,  of  course,  only  the  Latin  submonere  with  a 
change  of  prefix  from  SUB-  to  SUBTUS-  in  the  meta- 
thesized form,  and  sostcavar,  to  mine,  also  exists  in  Latin 
under  the  form  of  subcavare.  Cavar,  to  pierce,  exists  in 
Provengal,  and  sostcavar  might  have  been  formed  from  it, 
but  the  change  of  prefix  in  the  Latin  verb  is  more  probable, 
as  other  examples  of  the  change  of  SUB-  to  SUBTUS- 
are  so  common.  Another  frequent  form  of  the  prefix  is 
SOS-,  also  found  in  one  word  as  SOZ-,-  both  of  which 
forms   indicate    SUBTUS-   as   their   source.     The   form 

1  p.  456. 

2  Sozmover  <suhrnovere. 


t  Of  Lat.  origin  is  sobrecreiser,  increase <supercrescere. 

tt  Of  Lat.  origin  are  sobrescriure,  superscnhe <superscribere,  and  sob- 
restendre,  extend  ovcKsuperextendere,  showing  a  Lat.  double  prefix. 

A  word  with  the  prefix  SOBRE-  and  the  ending  -ir  of  Lat.  origin  is 
sobrevenir,  come  up  <supervetiire. 


Formation  of  Verbs  459 

SOS-  is  found  in  sosfoire,  sosjazer,  sosplantar,  sosrire, 
sostraire,  which  words  exist  in  Latin  with  SUB-  as  prefix, 
as  suhfoedere.  subjacere,  supplantare,  subridere,  subtrahere} 
How  common  this  change  of  prefix  was  is  seen  in  some 
Old  French  words,  which  in  their  more  recent  develop- 
ments have  lost  all  outward  sign  of  the  prefix  SUBTUS-. 
Such  words  are  sosmettre,  soslever,  soslegier.-  The  analogy 
of  sospirar  and  sostener  from  the  Latin  suspirare  and 
sustinere  has  been  suggested  for  the  Provengal  words 
sosrire,  sosterrar,  and  sostraire.^  It  would  be  equally  pos- 
sible for  the  French  words,  as  suspirare  became  n  Old 
French  sospirer.  This  analogy  with  sus  —  sursum  may 
perhaps  have  influenced  some  words,  more  particularly'' 
the  French  soslever,  soslegier,  since  the  SUB-  of  sublevare 
and  subleviare  seems  to  have  been  equal  in  force  to  SUS-  = 
up;  nevertheless  in  most  of  the  words  SOS-  still  means 
"under,"  and  must  go  back  to  SUBTUS-,  substituted  for 
SUB-  of  like  meaning,  on  account  of  its  length  and 
sonority.  When  SUBTUS-  had  become  SOTZ-,  SOS-, 
other  new  words  may  have  been  formed  by  analogy 
with  them,  but  such  cases  are  very  rare.  With  the  form 
SOTZ-,  a  few  words  are  found — sotzescriure,  sotzintrar, 
and  sotzportar,  but  these  again  are  but  the  Latin  words 
subscriber e,  subintrare,  and  supportare  with  a  substitution 
of  SUBTUS-  for  SUB-.  Sotzpauzar,  put  under,  seems  to 
be  the  only  example  of  SUBTUS-  in  a  word  in  which  it  is 
not  merely  a  substitution  for  SUB-  found  in  words  exist- 
ing in  Latin. 

1  Is  there  also  a  form  substrahere  f  This  is  the  etymon  which  the 
Die.  Gen.  gives  for  the  Fr.  soustraire.  The  subs-,  however,  appears 
to  be  a  contraction  of  SUBTUS-. 

2  Soumettre,  soulever,  and  soulager  in  Mod.  Fr.  See  Mots  Composes, 
120. 

3  Grandgent,  art.  66,  sec.  1. 


460  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

TRAS-,    (trans-),    TRES- 

The  Latin  prefix  TRANS-  is  found  under  several 
forms  in  Proven(^al:  (1)  as  TRANS-,  in  words  coming 
from  learned  words  formed  in  Latin,  as  transfigurare;^ 
(2)  as  TRAS-  in  developments  of  a  few  words  formed  in 
Latin,  mostly  of  a  more  popular  formation,  as  trasvazer 
from  transvadere-— although,  some  of  the  learned  words  are 
found  with  TRAS-  as  well  as  TRANS- — ^and  in  popular 
words  formed  in  Provengal;  (3)  as  TRE(S)-  in  one  or  two 
words  showing  the  influence  of  the  French  TRES-,  as 
tresanar  as  well  as  trasanar;  (4)  as  TRA-  in  a  very  few 
words,^  most  of  them  having  TRA-  in  Latin,  and  becom- 
ing so  closely  welded  together  as  not  to  allow  the  prefix 
to  be  recognized  as  such  and  so  turned  back  to  TRAS-. 

Thus  the  only  form  of  the  prefix  used  in  making  new 
words  is  TRAS-,  but  there  are  several  examples  of  this 
kind  of  formation  in  Provengal. 

TRAS-  is  jo-'ned  to  verbs  in  -en-  in: 

traacujur,  be  full  of  arrogance  cujar,  think 

*trasmeliar,'* 

traspasar,  go  beyond;  die  pasar,  pass 

>  A  list  of  the  words  of  this  kind  would  contain  transfigar,  trans- 
figurar,  transform-  (found  also  with  TRAS-),  transformar,  transglotir, 
translatar  (formed  on  translatum) ,  transmudar  (also  with  TRAS-), 
transnomnar ,  transplantar  (also  with  TRAS-),  and  transportar. 

-  Also  trascolar  and  trasluzer  and  the  words  having  TRAS-  as  well 
as  TRANS-  given  in  note  1. 

3  As  tragitar<trajectare  (also  found  as  trasgitar);  travcrsar <*trans- 
versare,  formed  on  iransversus;  and  trapenar,  iaint(  ?)  <*trapenare{f)  = 
TRANS- -l-penare(f). 

*  This  word  is  listed  by  Raynouard,  but  only  the  past  participle 
trasmeliat  is  found.  Raynouard  translates  trasmeliar  by  "to  trouble." 
The  word  is  also  found  in  Appel's  Chrestomathy  (No.  100,  line  20),  but 
no  translation  of  it  is  given  in  the  vocabulary.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  word  should  be  corrected  to  trassomelhat,  which  would  give  the  right 
number  of  syllables  to  the  line.  Trassomelhat,  would  be  a  parasyntheton 
formed  on  somelhar,  be  sleepy,  and  the  meaning  which  such  a  formation 
would  have  fits  the  passage  exactly. 


Formation  of  Verbs  461 

trassautar,  leap  beyond  sautar,  leap 

trassuzar,  sweat  through  suzar,  sweat 

trastombar,  overturn,  upset  tombar,  fall 

trastornar,  upset,  overturn  tornar,  turn 

It  is  prefixed  to  verbs  in  -er  in: 

trascenher,  gird  on  cenher,  gird  on 

to  verbs  in  -re  in : 

trastolre,  transport  iolre,  take 

and  to  verbs  in  -ir  in : 

trassalhir,  transgre^  salhir,  go  out 

The  meaning  of  TRAS-  in  the  various  formations  gives 
little  difficulty.  It  is  regularly  that  of  "through"  or 
''beyond,"  with  an  occasional  figurative  use. 


CHAPTER  II 

FORMATION  OF  NOUNS 

In  the  formation  of  nouns,  almost  exactly  the  same 
prefixes  are  employed  as  in  the  formation  of  verbs,  but 
nouns  formed  by  means  of  prefixes  are  much  less  numer- 
ous than  the  verbs  have  been  seen  to  be.  The  general 
principles  applied  to  the  formation  of  both  seem,  to  be  the 
same,  with  the  one  exception  that  loss  of  force  in  the  prefix 
is  much  less  usual  in  the  noun-formations  than  among  the 
verbs.  Here  it  was  seen  that  most  of  the  really  common 
prefixes  were  sometimes,  at  least,  used  without  force, 
whereas  in  the  case  of  nouns,  such  prefixes  as  CON-, 
CONTRA-,  and  DES-  are  never  forceless.  The  only 
nominal  prefixes  that  seem  to  be  used  in  this  way  are 
EN-,  ENTRE-,  and  ES-.  Of  these,  EN-  is  only  occasion- 
ally used  without  force,  ENTRE-  is  so  used  in  all  but  two 
words,  and  ES-  seems  always  to  have  that  use.  The  two 
words  with  ENTRE-  referred  to  are  entrecilh  and  entre- 
uelh.  Entrecilh  seems  to  have  been  formed  in  Latin, ^ 
and  entreuelh  was  probably  formed  by  analogy  with  it. 
The  other  words  in  ENTRE-  may  have  had  entrejorc 
as  a  starting-point.  This  is  probably  a  postverbal  noun 
formed  on  entreforcar,  and  from  the  nature  of  the  verb, 
the  prefix  could  have  little  force.  This  postverbal 
formation  seems  to  be  the  explanation  for  most  of  the 
examples  of  the  forceless  prefix,  with  ES-  as  well  as  with 
ENTRE-,  although  often  no  verb  is  found.  The  force  of 
EN-,  as  seen  in  the  verbs,  was  at  best  very  vague;  it  is, 
therefore,  not  surprising  to  find  among  the  nouns  examples 
in  which  it  has  no  force.     All  of  these  may,  indeed,  be 

1  See  p.  473,  ii.  1,  below. 

462 


Formation  of  Nouns  463 

postverbals.  There  are,  however,  also  other  examples 
in  which  EN-  has  its  prepositional  force,  in  which  cases 
adverbial  phrases  gradually  became  used  as  simple 
nouns.  This  same  kind  of  formation  is  also  true  of  the 
prefix  A-.^ 

The  nominal  prefixes  will  now  be  studied  in  alphabetical 
order. 


Although  there  are  many  nouns  in  Provencal  begin- 
ning with  the  prefix  A-,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  prefix  was  used  to  form  the  noun,  or 
whether  it  was  made  in  some  other  way.  There  seem 
to  be  very  few  examples  of  nouns  formed  by  using  the 
prefix  A-  with  any  part  of  speech.  Afar  comes 
probably  from  a  word  formed  in  Latin,^  in  which  language 
there  are  some  examples  of  this  kind  of  formation,  although 
most  of  them  appear  to  be  from  the  classical  speech. 
Most  of  the  nouns  with  the  prefix  A-  that  are  found 
are,  however,  beyond  doubt,  merely  nouns  formed  by  the 
use  of  the  stem  of  the  corresponding  verb.  This  was  one 
of  the  commonest  ways  of  forming  abstracts,  and  will 
be  described  fully  farther  on.^  Abstract  nouns  exactly 
like  the  infinitive  of  a  verb,  except  for  the  absence  of  the 
termination,  nearly  always  belong  to  this  class.  Thus 
such  words  as  adop,  afan,  ajost,  and  asensa  hardly  belong 
here.  Even  arrenc  appears  to  come  from  arrengar, 
formed  on  rengar  from  renc,  and  not  directly  from  renc. 
Arrega,  line,  furrow,  appears  to  be  formed  on  rega,  but 
the  A-  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  case  of  agglutination 

1  See  the  lists  of  words  under  A-  and  EN-,  pp.  464  and  471. 

2  Mots  Composes,  146. 

3  Part  IV,  chap,  i,  below. 


464  Word-Formation  in  Proven(;al 

of  the  article.^     The  word  exists  in  the  simple  form  in  the 
other  languages.     This  leaves  only  the  following  possi- 
bilities of  cases  of  the  formation  of  a  noun  by  prefixing  A-, 
and  not  all  of  these  are  certain: 
abandon,  freedom,  "abandon"  handon,  permission 

apoestat,  potentate  poeslat,  power 

aranciira,  affliction  rancura,  bitterness 

asenhal,  banner  senhal,  signal 

aviron,  tiller  viron,  around 

ANTI- 

The  prefix  ANTI-  is  fomid  in  very  few  new  formations 

in  Provengal.     Of  purely  learned  origin,  coming  from  the 

Greek  avn  and  passing  through   the    Latin  ANTI-,  it 

is  found  in  some  learned  Provengal  words  descended  from 

the  original  Greek  words,^  or  in  imitation  of  them;    but 

Provengal  formations  are  rare.     Two  at  most  are  found: 

antipapa,^  antipope  papa,  pope 

antitrobador,  bad  troubadour  trobador,  troubadour 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  words  formed  by  use  of  ANTI- 

refer  only  to  persons,  CONTRA-  being  used  elseAvhere. 

Antipapa  means  (the  man)  against  or  opposed  to  the  pope. 

Antitrobador,  the  one  opposed  to  or  opposite  to  a  (good) 

troubadour.     From  such  words  as  anticrist  and  antipapa, 

ANTI-  seems  to  have  contracted  contemptuous  force. 

'  The  same  is  possibly  true  of  some  of  the  words  listed  as  having 
the  prefix  A-,  but  the  changed  meaning  of  the  derived  word  makes  it 
appear  less  probable.  Asenhal  and  aviron  (masculine  words  in  which 
this  would  be  impossible)  may  be  post-verbal  nouns  formed  on  asenhalar 
and  avironar,  although  the  former  is  not  found.  The  latter  exists, 
however,  as  does  avironer,  in  O.  Fr.,  and  these  verbs  may  be  the  sources 
of  the  Fr.  and  Pro  v.  noun  aviron,  although  Diez  and  the  Die.  Gen.  give 
the  Fr.  noun  as  formed  by  the  prefix. 

-  Such  words  as  antifrasis,  antithesis,  antitheton,  etc.,  are  of  course, 
Gr. ;   anticrist  is  Lat. 

3  Even  this  is  found  in  Late  Lat.,  and  in  the  text  in  which  the  Prov. 
word  is  found,  it  is  probably  a  translation  of  a  Fr.  word  and  very  late. 
This  would  leave  antitrobador  as  the  only  probable  Prov.  formation. 


Formation  of  Nouns  465 

BES- 

The  prefix  BES-  from  the  Latin  BIS-  is  found  in  only 
a  few  words  in  Provengal,  but  most  of  them  are  interesting 
on  account  of  their  meaning.  BIS-  originally  meant 
"twice,"  and  this  meaning  is  found  in  some  of  the  Pro- 
vengal examples,  as  in  hescalon  and  bescueg.  But  the 
depreciative  force  which  it  contracts  in  Provengal  as 
elsewhere  is  equally  common,  as  in  beslei.  In  other  ex- 
amples, as  hescalme  and  bestor,  the  precise  force  of  BES- 
is  not  clear.  In  bescambi,  it  changes  the  simple  word 
very  little.  Yet  the  most  interesting  change  of  meaning 
is  the  one  from  doubleness  to  depreciation.  Darmes- 
teter^  in  treating  this  suffix  considers  this  change  as 
a  general  process  of  language,  arising  from  the  cases 
where  the  diversity  was  a  fault,  and  not  due  to  any  one 
particular  word.  From  his  examples,  this  seems  likely 
enough.  The  process  is  one  found  in  nearly  every 
language.^ 

The  Provengal  nouns  found  with  the  prefix  BES-  are 
as  follows: 

bescaire,    irregularity,    strange  caire,  square 

form 

hescalme,    open    hole   or    gar-  calm,  heath,  bare  laud 

ret  ( ?)  3 

hescalon,'^  double  step  escalon,  step,  round 

bescambi,^  change,  exchange  cambi,  change 

1  Mots  Composes,  127-29. 

2  Even  examples  in  which  no  prefix  at  all  is  involved  tend  to  show 
this.     In  Engl.,  for  instance,  the  word  "duplicity"  often  has  a  bad  sense. 

3  The  precise  meaning  is  doubtful,  but  calm  from  the  Lat.  calmis 
(in  Du  Cange)  is  clearly  at  the  base. 

*  We  should  expect  besescalon.  There  is  apparently  a  contraction 
here,  a  kind  of  syllabic  superposition,  as  BES-  is  clearly  part  of  the  word. 

'  Bescambi  probably  represents  escambi,  a  verbal  substantive  from 
escambiar,  with  a  change  of  prefix. 


466  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

hescueg}  biscuit  cueg,  cookod 

beslei,  injustice^  lei,  law 

besior,-'\  bastion,  turret  tor,  tower 


CON- 

The  prefix  CON-  is  used  to  form  a  few  nouns  in  Pro- 
vencal, mostly  on  nouns,  although  conviron  appears  to 
be  otherwise  formed.  The  total  list  of  nouns  in  Pro- 
vencal with  this  prefix  is  not  large,  and  aside  from  the 
words  clearly  coming  from  words  formed  in  Latin, 
several  others  of  our  Provengal  words  seem  to  have  been 
formed  there.  Such  are  coheiritz,  comaire,  confraire.  The 
masculine  coheres  is  found  in  Latin,  and  Du  Cange  gives 
examples  of  commater  and  confratres — the  latter,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  only  in  the  plural.  He  also  gives  one 
example  of  concuba,  and  other  words  on  this  stem,  con- 
cubina,  concubare,  concubatio  are  common.  Concoa  can 
hardly  be  a  Provengal  formation. 

In  Provencal  noun-formations  with  CON-,  the  prefix 

may  keep  its  prepositional  force.     Thus  we  have: 

concosol,  co-consul  cosol,  consul 

conserv,  ff  companion  in  service        serv,  slave 

All  of  the  examples  thus  far  have  therefore  denoted 
persons.  A  formation  denoting  a  thing  is  seen  in  con- 
tensa,  dispute.  It  appears  to  be  formed  on  tensa,  but  the 
word  is  of  peculiar  formation.  The  Latin  contentioiiem 
gave  contenson,  and,  by  dropping  the  prefix,  it  may  have 

1  A  past  participle  (meaning  "twice-cooked")  used  as  a  noun. 

2  The  change  of  meaning  here  is  not  very  clear. 

t  Another  word  apparently  having  BES-  is  besonh  or  hezonh.  Kor- 
ting  (No.  8,878)  gives  his  sonium  as  source,  but  this  would  not  account 
for  the  voicing  of  the  "s"  in  Fr.  and  Ital.  as  well  as  in  Prov. 

tt  The  words  of  Lat.  origin,  as  mentioned  above,  are  coheiritz,  comaire, 
concoa,  and  confraire. 


Formation  of  Nouns  467 

given  both  tenson  and  tensa,  the  two  forms  representing 
the  two  cases.  Contensa,^  may  be  an  addition  of  the 
prefix  in  imitation  of  contenson  beside  tenson,  or,  like  tensa, 
it  may  simply  have  indicated  another  case. 

On  a  preposition  (viron)  is  formed: 
conviron,  direction,  vicinity  viron,  around 

CONTRA- 

The  prefix  CONTRA-  is  used  to  form  several  new 

nomis  in  Provencal  by  being  joined  to  simple  nouns.     As 

to  meaning,  CONTRA-  is  not  difficult  to  describe.     Its 

most  important  meaning,  as  was  the  case  when  joined 

to  verbs,   is  that   of  opposition.     Thus   contraclau  and 

contrajogador   have   this   force.     From   this   meaning   of 

"against"  or  "counter,"  comes,  as  in  the  verbs,  the  idea 

of  a  balance  between  the  things  opposed.     Thus  we  have 

contrapas  and  contrapes.     Contraporta  means  the  outer 

door  as  opposed  to  the  inner  one.     Contraterras  seems  to 

mean  owners  of  lands  opposite  each  other .^   This  meaning 

of  "opposite  to"   (in  position)   is  more  clearly  seen  in 

contrasagel,  counter-seal.     The  meanings  are  all  closely 

related,  however,  and  arise  from  the  idea  of  duality.     The 

list  of  formations  of  this  kind  is  as  follows:^ 

contraclau,  counter-keystone  clau,  key,  keystone 

contradich,'^  opposite,  reverse,  con-    dich,  speech,  decision 
tradiction 

1  Du  Cange  gives  contentia,  but  he  merely  infers  its  existence  from 
an  O.  Fr.  word  found  in  Joinville.     See  Korting,  No.  2,462. 

2  See  examples  in  Levy,  I,  350.  Contraterras  probably  meant  origi- 
nally "lands  opposite  or  adjoining  each  other,"  but  in  both  examples 
given  in  Levy,  the  word  appears  to  be  personified  to  mean  the  owner  of 
the  land. 

3  Almost  all  of  the  examples  here  given  seem  to  be  of  the  tj-pe  in 
which  the  prefix  is  used  as  an  adverb  and  not  as  a  preposition,  as  con- 
trapes,  contrajogador,  etc. 

<  Perhaps  simply  the  past  participle  of  contradire  used  as  a  noun. 


468  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

contrafort,^  rcsistanceC?),  unpleas- 

antness(?),  disgust(?) 
contrajogndor,  opponent  in  play        jogador,  plaj'er 
contrapns,  counter-movement (  ?)-      pas,  step 
contrapes,  counterweight;  retribu-     pes,  weight 

tion  (see  also  postverbals) 
contraponchamen,  counterpoint  ponchamen,  pointing 

conlraporla,  outer  door  porta,  door 

contrarole^        \  controller,  inspec- 
contrarolador  )      tor 

conlrasagel,  counter-seal  sagel,  seal 

contraterras,  owners  of  adjoining     terra,  land 

or  opposite  lands  ( ?) 

DAVAN- 

The  Provengal  preposition  DAVAN-,  from  the  com- 
bination of  Latin  prepositions  de-\-ah-{-ante,  is  found 
used  as  a  prefix  in  two  words,  in  both  of  which  it  has 
its  adverbial  force  of  "before,"  or  that  of  the  Enghsh 
prefix  "fore":^ 

davanbarri,  outer  wall  barri,  rampart 

davancorredor,  forerunner  corredor,  runner 

1  The  word  is  not  entirely  clear,  but  its  meaning,  judging  from  the 
examples  in  Levy,  I,  345,  seems  to  be  as  given  above.  Contrafort  seems 
to  have  meant  originally  "strong  against"  or  "equally  strong,"  and 
it  was  probably  later  used  substantively.  In  one  of  the  examples 
in  Levy,  it  seems  to  have  preserved  its  adjectival  force.  See  adjectives 
(p.  482,  n.f),  below. 

2  The  meaning  is  not  thoroughlj'  clear.  In  the  one  example  given, 
it  evidently  has  something  to  do  with  the  working  of  a  clock,  and  the 
word  may  have  become  confused  with  contrapes  (literally  counterweight) . 
See  Levy,  I,  347. 

^Conlrarole— contra  rotula.  On  coniraroZe  were  probably  formed 
*contrarolar  and  contrarolador.  Contraroie,  probably  originally  denoting 
a  thing,  may  have  been  later  used  to  denote  a  person.  Finally  contra- 
rolador was  probably  formed  by  analogy  with  the  other  words  denoting 
the  agent  of  an  action. 

*  This  use  seems  peculiar  to  Prov.  None  of  the  modern  languages 
use  the  prefix  in  compounds,  and  O.  Fr.  has  only  one  or  two  examples  of 
it.     Cf.  Godefroy.     Mod.  Fr.  uses  instead  avant. 


Formation  of  Nouns  469 

DENAN- 

Another  Provengal  prefix  that  may  be  given  here  on 
account  of  being  formed  from  a  similar  combination  of 
Latin  prepositions  {de-{-in-\-ante)  is  the  preposition 
denan.  As  a  prefix,  however,  this  appears  to  be  found 
in  only  one  word : 

denansabensa,  foreknowledge  sabensa,  knowledge 

The  meaning  of  the  prefix  seems  to  be  "fore"  like  that  of 
DAVAN-,  although  in  this  one  example,  it  refers  to  time 
whereas  DA  VAN-  refers  to  place.  "^ 

DE- 

DE-  is  found  in  a  few  words  apparently  used  as  a  nom- 
inal prefix,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  it  ever  really 
had  this  use.  Thus  detalh  appears  to  be  a  postverbal 
formation,  degrat  is  probably  not  a  Provengal  formation, 
but  comes  from  the  Latin  *degradus,^  and  defortuna,  mis- 
fortune, one  of  the  few  other  possible  examples,  is  nothing 
but  a  substitution  of  DE-  for  DES-.  Desfortuna,  which 
is  also  foimd,  shows  the  usual  prefix. 

DES- 

DES-,  which  has  been  studied  as  a  prefix  added  to 
verbs,  is  also  added  to  nouns,  where  it  is  much  more 
regular  in  meaning  than  when  used  with  verbs.  With 
nouns,  DES-  always  has  negative  force,  although  in  some 
words,  as  dezunion  and  dezestansa,  the  separative  value 
is  also  perceptible.  The  list  follows: 
dezaize,  discomfort  aize,  ease 

dezamansa     }   ,.    „    ,.  amansa   )  , 

,  )■  disaffection  r  love 

dezamor         )  amor        ) 

1  In  adjectives,  however,  the  two  seem  to  be  used  interchangeably. 
See  p.  482,  below. 

2  Apparently  a  popular  Lat.  form  used  instead  of  the  classical 
gradus.  It  was  probably  due  to  the  existence  of  the  verb  degradare. 
Korting,  No.  2,824;  Diez,  560. 


470 


Word-Formation  in  Proven5al 


dezavnntatge,  disadvant age 
descapdel,  miscontluct 

descortezia,  discourtesy 
desdansa,^  kind  of  song 
dezegallat,  inequality 
dezegansa,  disorder 
dezestansa,  absence 
desfornimen,  wrong,  injury 
desgrat,-  ill-will;  discontent 
dezorde,  disorder 
despoder,  powerlessness 
desrazon,  injustice 
desrazonamen,  unreason 
dessazon,  bad  weather 
dezunion,  lack  of  union 


nvrmtatge,  advantage 
capdel,   leadership,    administra- 
tion 
cortezia,  courtesy 
dansa,  dance-song 
egaltat,  equality 
egansa,  equality 
estansa,  situation 
fornimen,  equipment,  provision 
grat,  will,  wish,  liking 
orde,  order 
poder,  power 
razon,  reason 
razonamen,  reasoning 
sazon,  season 
union,  union 


EN- 

The  preposition  EN-  from  the  Latin  IN-  is  found 
in  very  few  words  as  a  nominal  prefix,  common  as  it  is 
in  forming  verbs.  There  are  apparently  about  twenty 
formations  of  this  kind,  but  a  closer  examination  shows 
the  number  to  be  in  reality  much  smaller.  Many  of  the 
words  resembling  formations  of  this  kind  are  really  post- 
verbal  formations,^  and  others  are  descendants  of  words 
formed  in  Latin,"*  whereas  still  others  are  only  adjectives 
used  as  nouns.'' 

■  Here  the  meaning  seems  to  be  that  of  a  song  composed  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  songs  of  certain  adversaries,  and  simihir  in  meaning,  therefore, 
to  descan,  by  analogy  with  which  it  may  have  been  formed,  though  this 
i  s  a  postverbal  formed  on  descantar. 

2  There  is  a  verb  degradar  sometimes  found  as  desgradar,  but  uncon- 
nected with  desgrat. 

3  Thus,  for  example,  embosca,  encomhre,  encorsa,  englut,  and  escomhrc. 
*  Thus    embut,    funnel <*imbutum    from    imbuere,    and    emplecha, 

wares<implicita.     Cf.    esplecha<explicita,   also   the   Fr.  emplette,  origi- 
nally empleite. 

'  Thus,  for  example,  the  nouns  endomenjal  and  envers.  Entrach, 
sticking-plaster,    may   also    be   placed    here.     It   is   probably   the   past 


Formation  of  Nouns  471 

In  most  of  the  formations  on  nouns,  EN- has  its  preposi- 
tional value,  and  the  formation  is  of  the  kind  that  has 
been  seen  in  abandon,  etc.,  an  adverbial  phrase  gradually 
becoming  used  as  a  noun.^  In  a  few  words,  the  prefix 
shows  no  force,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  these 
are  real  nominal  formations  with  EN-.-  In  enobediensa 
EN-  represents  the  Latin  negative  prefix  IN-,  which  was 
common  enough  in  forming  adjectives.  The  negative  EN-, 
however,  is  rare  in  Provengal  even  in  forming  adjectives, 
and  enobediensa  seems  to  be  the  only  noun  in  which  it  is 
used.     DES-  is  the  usual  prefix  of  negation. 

The  list  of  possible  nominal  formations  with  EN-  is  as 
follows: 

embanc,  shed  bmic,  bank,  bench 

enclaustre,^  cloister  daustre,  cloister 

encorda,  string  for  crossbow  ( ?)  corda,  cord 

endalh,  stroke,  swath  dalh,  scythe 

endec,  fault,  defect;  disease''  dec,  fault,  defect 

endiluvi^  (endolobi),  flood  diluvi,  flood 


participle  of  *entraire  used  substantively.  It  is  this  form  that  is  seen  in 
the  Fr.  entrait,  with  the  same  meaning  as  is  seen  in  the  Prov.  word.  The 
verb  entraire  is  found  in  O.  Fr. 

1  As,  for  example,  in  enfruch,  given  in  the  list. 

2  See  the  individual  note  given  with  each  of  these  words. 

3  Enclaustre  may  be  only  a  postverbal  formation  on  enclaustrar, 
shut  in,  but  the  formation  by  means  of  the  prefix  EN-  seems,  on  the  whole 
probable,  as  some  of  the  certain  prefix-formations  given  above  are  exactly 
like  it.     Cf.  the  O.  Fr.  encloistre. 

*  From  the  two  examples  given  in  Levy,  these  seem  to  be  the  mean- 
ings, although  the  second  example  is  far  from  clear.  An  adjective 
endechat,  defective  (which  would  seem  to  imply  a  verb  *endechar,  a 
parasynthetic  formation  on  the  noun  dec),  is  also  found.  If  endechat 
is  thus  formed,  endec  would  be  a  postverbal  formation.  But  the  reverse 
procedure,  the  formation  of  endechat  on  the  noun  endec  (EN-+dec), 
would  not  be  impossible.-    See  the  suffix  AT-,  p.  304. 

5  There  are  a  good  many  forms  of  this  word,  most  of  them,  however, 
having  ES-  instead  of  EN-. 


472  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

endoloiramen,^  grief,  suffering  (loloiramen,  grief 

enfruch,  produce,  revenue  fruch,  fruit 

enobediensa,^  disobedience  obediensa,  obedience 

enquestion,  question,  speech  question,  question 

entorcha,^  torch  torcha,  torch 

entrevioia,]  trough  tremoia,  mill-hopper 

ENDE- 

Scveral  words  with  an  apparent  prefix  ENDE- are  found 
in  Provencal,  but  these  words  are  probably  all  due  to  the 
analogy  of  endeman,  the  next  day,  in  which  the  prefixes 
EN-  and  DE-  were  added  separately,  EN-  being  prefixed 
to  deman,  tomorrow,  in  its  use  as  substantive.  Now, 
endeman  existed  beside  the  simple  word  man,  morning, 
and  some  such  force  as  "the  next"  was  seen  in  the  com- 
pound prefix  EN+DE-  which  was  used  later  as  a  single 
prefix  attached  to  words  meaning  "day"  and  "morning" 
with  the  force  of  "the  next."  This  use  of  ENDE- 
seems  almost  peculiar  to  Proven^al.^     The  list  follows: 

endedie,  the  next  day  dia,  day 

endejorn,  the  next  day  jorn,  day 

endeman,  the  next  day  man,  morning 

endemalin,  the  next  morning  matin,  morning 

1  The  existence  of  this  word  is  very  doubtful.  Its  existence  in  the 
dictionaries  is  probably  due  to  a  confusion  with  emperilhamen  in  the 
following  line.     See  Levy,  II,  472,  and  II,  271. 

2  See  introductory  remarks  on  this  prefix,  p.  471. 

'  Torc{h)a  probably  comes  from  a  Lat.  *torca  from  torcere  (Class. 
Lat.  torquere).  Entorcha  would  therefore  be  a  prefix-formation.  This 
word  and  enquestion  seem  to  be  the  only  fairly  certain  examples  of  the 
forceless  use  of  the  prefix  EN-.  All  the  other  words  beginning  with  a 
forceless  EN-  may  be  explained  as  having  been  formed  in  some  other  way. 

*  Of  course  lendemain  exists  in  Fr.,  but  there  are  no  analogical  forma- 
tions as  in  Prov.  The  I  of  lendemain,  of  course,  represents  only  the 
agglutination  of  the  article.  Raynouard  gives  lendeman  for  Prov.,  but 
Levy  (II,  460)  corrects  it  to  endeman. 


t  For  endeman,  etc.,  see  ENDE-.     It  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
most  of  the  formations  in  the  above  list  exist  in  Prov.  only. 


Formation  of  NorNs  473 

ENTRE- 

The   Provengal   prefix   ENTRE-    (INTER-)    is   used 

in  forming  nouns  as  well  as  verbs,  but  with  nouns  it  seems 

to  be  much  more  restricted  in  meaning.     In  two  words 

it    has    real    prepositional    force,    meaning    (the    space) 

"between."     Thus   entrecilh   and    entreuelh    both    mean 

the  space  between  the  eyes.     In  the  other  words,  ENTRE- 

shows  the  loss  of  force  which  is  so  peculiarly  noticeable 

in  Provengal  prefixes,   both  verbal  and  nominal.     The 

other  meanings  which  ENTRE-   has   when   used   with 

verbs  are  not  found  among  the  nominal  formations.    The 

complete  list  follows: 

entrecilh,^  space  between  the  eyes  cilh,  eyebrow 

entrecim,  top,  summit  cim,  top 

entreforc,^  crossroad  fore,  forking,  crossroad 

entresenh,  sign  senh,  sign 

entresospir,  sigh  sospir,  sigh 

entreuelh,^]  space  between  the  eyes  nelh,  eye 

ES- 

ES-,  hke  EN-,  is  rare  in  Provengal  as  a  nominal  prefix. 
Most  of  the  nouns  that  begin  with  ES-  are  either  post- 

1  Compare  the  Sp.  entrecejo.  The  Lat.  *intercilium,  though  not 
found  in  the  ordinary  dictionaries,  is  cited  in  Du  Cange  as  being  from 
Isidore  of  Seville.  This  word,  like  entreuelh,  denoting  a  single  definite 
space,  is  peculiar  in  meaning. 

2  This  is  possibly  a  postverbal  formation  derived  from  enlreforcar 
in  which,  from  the  nature  of  the  verb,  the  prefix  ENTRE-  could  add  but 
little  to  the  meaning.  Some  word  such  as  this  probably  gave  rise  to 
entrecim  and  entresenh,  in  which  the  prefix  is  without  force. 

3  Possibly  formed  by  the  analogy  of  entrecilh,  described  above. 


t  Other  words  beginning  with  ENTRE-,  but  already  formed  in  Lat., 
are:  entreval<intervallum  and  entrarmas<interaneas.  Enteruscle,  inner 
bark  of  a  tree  ( ?)  may  possibly  also  come  from  a  Lat.  Hnterrusculum ,  a 
diminutive  of  interruscum.  Interrusculum  would  give  entreruscle,  which 
probably  became  enteruscle  by  dissimilation.  See  Romania,  XXXVII,  119. 

An  apparent  formation  with  ENTRE-,  but  one  in  which  the  prefix 


474  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

verbal  formations/  or  else  ES-  represents  the  Latin  s 
before  a  consonant  plus  the  prosthetic  vowel.-  Never- 
theless, there  are  a  few  words  in  which  ES-  seems 
to  be  a  real  nominal  prefix,  and  in  these  it  adds 
nothing  in  meaning  to  the  simple  noun.'^  This  use 
of  ES-  has  been  seen  in  the  case  of  verbs,  where,  how- 
ever, ES-  had  also  its  original  prepositional  meaning 
of  "out  of,"  "from."  Yet  this  latter  meaning  is 
hardly  to  be  expected  in  nouns,  and  in  the  few  words 
that  have  any  such  meaning,  the  place  of  ES-  was 
taken  by  some  preposition  whose  force  was  more  clearly 
felt.^  The  use  of  ES-  without  force  may  have  come 
about  through  the  existence  of  substantives  derived  from 
verbs,  in  which  ES-  had  no  force,  beside  simple  nouns 
with  almost  the  same  meaning.  Yet  even  so,  formations 
of  the  kind  are  rare.  The  only  examples  of  it  seem  to  be 
in  the  following  words,  and  one  or  two  of  these  are 
doubtful : 

1  As  in  esglai  from  esglaiar,  csvelh  from  esvelhar,  escombre  from  escom- 
brar,  and  probably  esdec  from  *esdegar.  This  last  word,  together  with 
esdegamen,  is  found  only  in  Mod.  Bearnais. 

■  Words  of  this  kind  are  escalme,  thole Kscalmus;  escapla,  shoulder(  ?) 
Kscapula;  espoizon,  wager <sponsio7iem.  Besides  the  words  of  this 
kind,  there  are  also,  of  course,  words  in  which  the  Prov.  ES-  is  from 
the  Lat.  EX-,  as  escluza<exclusa.  The  learned  use  of  EX-  or  ES-  to 
denote  "former"  (cf.  the  Fr.  exroi)  does  not  exist  in  Prov. 

3  An  example  of  this  in  O.  Fr.  may  be  seen  in  escharboncle. 

*  As  FOR-  in  forsen,  for  example. 


is  really  EN-,  is  entremoia,  trough.  (EN-  +tre7noia<trimodia) .  See  EN- 
abovc.  More  obscure  words  are  entrevelh  and  entrevic.  The  meaning  of 
entrevelh  is  uncertain.  Levy  suggests  no  meaning  at  all,  and  Chabaneau 
.substitutes  entrenelh,  which  does  not  help  much  in  translating.  The 
substitution  of  entreval,  interval,  seems  to  be  much  more  plausible. 
Entrevic,  mesentery,  is  very  hard  to  explain.  Mistral  compares  its 
modern  form  with  the  Sp.  entresijo,  which  has  the  same  meaning,  but  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find  a  common  etymon  for  forms  so  different  as 
vie  and  sijo. 


Formation  of  Nouns  475 

escadafalc,^  scaffold  cadafalc,  scaffold 

(escoUivamen,-  cultivation  coUivamen,  cultivation) 

(esdec,^  placing  of  boundary-mark  dec,  boundary) 

esdiluvi,  esdolobi*  etc.,  flood  diluvi,  flood 

esponcha,^  sharp  pain  poncha,  point 

estraisa,^  trace,  vestige  traisa,  train,  net 

es<ro6ador,t  poet(  ?),  story-tener(?)  trobador,  troubadour 

FOR-,    MES-,    PRE-,    RE- 

The  next  prefixes^  used  in  forming  Provengal  nouns 
are,  taken  in  alphabetic  order,  FOR-,  MES-,  PER-,  PRE-, 
and  RE-,  but,  with  the  exception  of  PER-,  none  of  these 
seem  to  be  found  in  more  than  one  example,  and  therefore, 
hardly    require    detailed    individual     treatment.     Thus 

1  Cf.  the  Fr.  echafaud,  beside  which  no  simple  word  exists  (catafalque 
being  a  foreign  borrowing) .  Thus  we  see  here  again  the  tendency  of  the 
simple  word  to  disappear  when  existing  beside  a  derived  one  identical  in 
meaning.  Other  Fr.  examples  of  this  phenomenon  as  seen  in  this  prefix 
are  echantillon,  echarde,  etc. 

■  For  escoUivamen,  see  also  the  suffix  AMEN-  and  the  parasyntheta. 
If  escoltivar  existed,  as  seems  probable,  escoUivamen  would,  of  course,  be 
a  suffix-formation. 

3  The  meaning  makes  it  clear  that  esdec  is  not  a  prefix-formation. 
It  must  be  a  postverbal  noun  formed  on  esdegar. 

*  See  also  endiluvi  under  the  prefix  EN-. 

6  Possibly  a  postverbal  noun  formed  on  esponchar,  dull  a  point. 

« If  this  is  a  prefix-formation,  the  development  in  meaning  would 
certainly  be  unusual.  There  may  have  existed  a  verb  *estraisar,  pull  out, 
and  if  so,  estraisa  would  probably  be  a  postverbal  noun  derived  from  it. 
Estraisar  would  be  the  phonetic  development  of  extractiare,  from  which 
other  Romance  verbs  of  the  same  meaning  come.  Instead  of  estraisar, 
estrasar  is  the  form  found.  This  clearly  shows  some  outside  influence, 
probably  a  confusion  with  estrasar,  follow,  evidently  formed  on  trasa. 

'  BEN-  and  MAL-,  as  found  in  benestar  and  nialestar  and  the  words 
derived  from  them,  are  not  regarded  as  prefixes  but  as  individual  words 
meaning  "well"  and  "ill,"  and  are,  therefore,  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
composition.     This  is  also  true  of  nan.     See  Part  IV,  chap.  2. 


t  More  or  less  obscure  words  beginning  with  es  that  does  not  repre- 
sent the  prefix  ES-  are,  escafinhon,  light  shoe;  esgola  ( ?  );  esguiat,  kind  of 
cloth;  and  espeluca  {?).  This  last  may  perhaps  come  from  the  Lat. 
spelunca,  case.     Cf.  Mistral,  espelugo. 


476  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

FOR-  (Latin  FORIS-)  is  found  only  in  forsen,  madness, 
and  in  nouns  derived  from  it;  MES-  (Latin  MINUS-)  is 
found  only  in  mescap,^  misfortune;  PRE-  (Latin  PRAE-) 
is  found  only  in  preconoisensa,^  foreknowledge;  and  RE-, 
although  found  in  several  nouns,  was  probably  not  used 
in  forming  nouns  in  Provengal.^ 

PER- 

PER-,  however,  is  found  in  more  examples  than  the 
other  prefixes  just  mentioned,  and  must  be  treated  sepa- 
rately. As  in  the  cases  in  which  it  was  used  with  verbs,  it 
gives  an  idea  of  completeness  to  the  noun,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  examples: 

percencha,  inelosure(?)  cencha,  girdle 

perfil,  border  (last  thread)  fil,  thread 

-perfin,^  very  end  fin,  end 

peronction,  extreme  unction  onction,  unction 

perorde,  president^(?)  orde,  order 

per  pal,  t  lever  pal,  stake 

1  Possibly  a  sufRx-formation  on  *preconoiser Kpraecognoscere.  In 
the  same  way  mescap  may  not  be  a  prefix-formation  but  a  postverbal 
noun  derived  from  mescabar. 

2  Such  words,  for  example,  as  reclam,  retalh,  and  revelh  are  postverbal 
formations,  under  which  head  they  will  be  listed.     See  Part  IV,  chap.  1. 

3  Found  only  in  the  phrase  a  la  perfin.  Raynouard  gives  an 
example  of  par  fin  as  found  in  this  phrase.  If  it  exists,  the  form  may  be 
due  to  Fr.  influence. 

*  The  meaning  is  not  thoroughly  clear,  but  the  word  certainly 
denotes  a  person,  and  the  formation  is  thus  somewhat  unusual. 


t  A  number  of  other  nouns  beginning  with  PER-  arc  found,  but 
do  not  appear  to  belong  in  this  list.  Peroferta,  offering,  perponcha, 
doublet,  perpreza,  earth's  surface,  and  pertrach,  equipment,  merchandise, 
seem  to  be  only  the  past  participles  of  the  verbs  perofrir,  *perponher, 
perprendre,  and  pertraire  used  substantively.  Perpar,  offer,  and  perport, 
conduct,  are  postverbal  nouns  formed  on  perparar  and  perportar  (see 
p.  542).  Perozina,  resin,  has  PER-  only  in  appearance.  It  is  to  be 
found  among  the  compound  words  in  Part  IV,  p.  559. 


Formation  of  Nouns  477 

EEIRE- 

The  next  prefix  used  to  any  extent  in  the  formation  of 
nouns  in  Provengal  is  REIRE-,  from  the  Latin  RETRO-. 
In  all  of  the  examples,  its  use  is  adverbial  rather  than 
prepositional.  Thus,  for  example,  reiregarda  means 
"the  guard  which  is  in  the  rear,"  and  not  something 
behind  the  guard.  REIRE-  appears  to  be  used  generally 
in  Provencal  with  words  denoting  feudal  relations  and 
military  terms.     Thus:  • 

reireacapte,  tax  to  be  paid  by  the  acapte,  feudal  holding 

sub-tenant  on  the  death  of  his 

lord 

reireauditor,^  sub-auditor  auditor,  auditor 

reireconselh,  afterthought  conselh,  counsel,  thought 

reirefeuzal,^  under-tenant  feuzal,  vassal 

reiregach,  rear-watch  gach,  watch 

reiregarda,  rear-guard  garda,  guard 

reiretemps,  past  temps,  time 

reirevendas,  second  tax  on  a  sale  venda,  sale 

Thus  REIRE-  means  literally  "behind"  in  reiregach 
and  reiregarda;  it  means  "after,"  in  the  sense  of  time,  in 
reirecoselh;  and  it  means  "under,"  "of  lower  rank," 
in  reireauditor  and  reirefeuzal. 

SOBRE- 

SOBRE-  is  foimd  in  a  number  of  nouns  in  Provencal, 
where  it  is  used  in  two  different  ways :  as  preposition,  and 
as  adverb.  As  preposition,  it  is  of  common  occurrence, 
and  generally  has  the  meaning  of  "beyond"  or  "over" 
as  in  sobrabondansa  and  sohrefais,  and  is  sometimes  best 
translated  by  the  adjective  "great,"  as  in  sobrafan  and 
sobretemor. 

As  adverb,  SOBRE-  is  seen  in  sobrarbitre,  sobreces, 
sobrecot,  sobreden,   sobrefren,   sobrenom,    sobresenhal,    and 

1  Cf .  the  Engl,  "rear-admiral,"  etc. 


478 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


sobresenher,^  in  all  of  which  an  ellipsis  may  be  seen: 
sobreden  means  a  tooth  (which  is)  over  (another),  and 
sohresenher,  a  lord  (who  is)  over  (another).  The  list  of 
words  with  the  prefix  SOBRE-  follows: 

sobrabomlansa,  superabundance 

sobrafan,  over-anxiety 

sobrafar,  excess  of  affairs 

sobrarbitre,  super-arbiter 

sobreces,  additional  tax 

sobrecot,  surcoat 

sobreden,  large  irregular  tooth 

sobrefais,  overload 

sobrefach,"^  excess 

sobrefren,  double  rein 

sobregabaire,  boaster 

sobregatge,  second  pledge  or  mort- 
gage (?) 

sobreglatz,^  frozen  thing 

sobrelauzor,  overpraise 

sobremeravilha,     great     astonish- 
ment 

sobremezura,  excess 

sobrenom,  surname 

sobrepinhore,  second  pledge  or 
mortgage  ( ?) 

sobresen,  extravagance 

sobresenh,  breastplate 

sobresenhal,  plume 

sobresenher,  overlord 

sobretemor,  great  fear 

sobreven,^  great  wind 


abondansa,  abundance 

afan,  anxiety 

afar,  affair 

arbitre,  arbiter 

ces,  a  tax 

cot,  coat 

de7i,  tooth 

fais,  load,  burden 

fach,  deed,  fact 

fren,  rein 

gabaire,  mocker 

gatge,  pledge,  mortgage 

glatz,  ice 
lauzor,  praise 
meravilha,  marvel 

mezura,  moderation 
nom,  name 
pinhora,  pledge 

sen,  sense 

senh,  breast 

senhal,  sign,  standard 

senher,  lord 

temor,  fear 

ven,  wind 


'  All  the  other  words  in  the  list  have  SOBRE-  as  preposition. 

2  The  verb  *sobrefar,  corresponding  to  the  Fr.  surfaire  (from  which 
came  the  O.  Fr.  surf  ait),  is  not  found  in  Prov.  It  may  have  existed,  but 
it  is  unnecessary  to  assume  it.  Sobrefach  is  exactly  like  the  other  forma- 
tions on  nouns  in  the  above  list. 

3  That  is,  "  (a  thing  which  is)  on  the  ice,"  a  prepositional  use  of  the 
prefix.  It  would  be  possible,  however,  to  find  the  adverbial  use  of 
SOBRE-  here,  with  the  meaning  of  "a  thing  frozen  over." 


t  Also  of  Lat.  origin  sohrecilh<supercilium. 


Formation  of  Nouns  479 

SOTZ- 

The  prefix  SOTZ-,  whose  form  has  been  explained  under 

verbs/  is  used  in  forming  a  few  nouns,  in  which  it  has 

exactly  the  meaning  of    sub    or    ''under."     The  prefix 

SUBTUS-,   the  source  of  SOTZ-,  is  frequent,  under  its 

various  forms,  in  the  other  Romance  languages,  where  it  is 

very  commonly  attached  to  nouns  denoting  the  professions 

or  offices  of  persons   (Italian  sottomaestro,  French  sous- 

maitre,  etc.),   as  well  as  to  names  of  things  {sottocoppa, 

soucoupe,  etc.).     Provengal  has  formations  of  both  kinds: 

sotz-baile,  sub-bailiff  baile,  bailiff 

sotz-cencha,^  under-girdle  cencha,  girdle,  belt 

soizmayer,  sub-mayor  mayer,  mayor 

sotzprior,  sub-prior  prior,  prior 

sotzsela,-  saddle-cloth  sela,  saddle 

sotzsenescalc,  sub-seneschal  senescalc,  seneschal 

TRAS- 

The  prefix  TRAS-  (Latm  TRANS-)  is  found  in  very 
few  if  any  nouns  formed  in  Provengal,  although  usual 
enough  in  verbs.  The  only  possible  examples  of  it  appear 
to  be  trasdosa,  traslutz,  and  trastomha.  This  last,  meaning 
"a.  turn,"  is  probably  a  post  verbal  formation  dra\\Ti  from 
trastombar,  overturn.  Trasdosa,  meaning  probably,  "a 
burden,"  is  more  puzzling,  as  dors  and  not  dosa  is  the  word 
for  "back,"  with  which  this  word  is  evidently  connected.^ 

1  P.  458,  above. 

^  Sotzsela  =  the  housing  or  saddle-cloth,  i.e.  (the  thing)  under  the 
saddle.  Sotzcencha,  from  the  example  (Raynouard,  II,  377),  seems  to 
be  the  same  kind  of  formation — prepositional.  The  other  words  all 
refer  to  persons,  and  words  of  this  kind  are  given  by  both  Meyer-Liibke 
and  Darmesteter  as  formations  in  which  the  first  part  is  an  adverb. 
Nevertheless  sotz-baile,  for  example,  seems  to  mean  "(the  man)  under 
the  bailiff"  rather  than  "the  bailiff  under  some  other  man,"  and  this  is 
true  of  many  of  the  other  words.  SOTZ-  in  these  cases  seems,  therefore, 
to  be  prepositional  in  value. 

3  The  little  Levy  gives  dos  as  well  as  dors  for  "back." 


480  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

Du  Cange  gives  dossa,  but  dating  only  from  1400.  Trans- 
dorsa  is  also  given  there,  with  the  meaning  of  "sitting 
behind  someone  on  horseback,"^  but  dates  only  from  1243. 
From  this  literal  meaning  of  behind,  or  on,  the  back, 
evidently  came  the  meaning  of  burden,  which  the  French 
endosse,  a  postverbal  noun  formed  on  endosser,  has. 
Provencal  has  endosar,  but  not  trasdosar.  Could  any 
traces  of  it  be  found,  trasdosa  would  be  easy  of  explana- 
tion. Even  so,  however,  trasdosa,  (the  thing)  on  the 
back,  or  burden,  was  probably  a  postverbal  noun  derived 
from  this  Hrasdosar,  similar  in  formation  to  endosar.  In 
traslutz,  transparency,  we  seem  to  have  an  example  of 
TRAS-  as  a  nominal  prefix. 

»  Post  equitem  sedens.  Gall,  parte  en  croupe. 


CHAPTER  III 

FORMATION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

Very  few  of  the  prefixes  that  have  been  discussed 
in  dealing  with  tlie  formation  of  nouns  were  used  at 
all  freely  in  the  formation  of  adjectives.  SOB  RE-  is 
perhaps  most  important  of  all  as  an  adjectival  prefix, 
and  DES-  is  also  used  with  full  negative  force.  EN- 
is  found  in  a  few  words  of  varjdng  structure,  and 
with  different  meanings,  whereas  ES-  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  found  at  all.  It  should  be  clear,  however, 
that  it  is  only  as  real  adjectival  prefixes  that  these 
forms  are  so  rare,  for  DES-,  EN-,  and  ES-  are  all 
common  in  parasynthetic  adjectives.  In  these  cases,  the 
suffix  that  was  used  in  conjunction  with  the  prefix  was 
almost  always  AT-,  borrowed  from  the  past  participle 
of  the  verb  of  the  first  conjugation.  Such  forms,  then, 
as  desbrasat,  entemorat,  and,  esyeitrinat  will  be  given  under 
parasyntheta.  The  various  prefixes  will  now  be  studied 
in  order: 


A-  (<AD-)  is  hardly  found  as  an  adjectival  prefix. 
The  only  possible  example  appears  to  be 

afrontier,^  insulting,  bold  frontier,  bold,  shameless 

in  which  the  prefix  has  little  force. 

'  Even  this  word  is  doubtful,  however,  and  should  probably  be 
corrected  to  frontier.  Cf.  also  adrech,  skilful,  though  this  evidently 
comes  from  a  Lat.  *addirectus,  from  which  came  also  the  Fr.  adroit  and 
the  It.  addritto.  There  is  also  an  adverb,  arazonahlamen,  in  which  the 
prefix  contributes  no  change  of  meaning. 

481 


482  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

CON- 
CON-  appears  to  be  found  as  a  prefix  in  two  adjectives, 
in  one  of  which  CON-  has  its  original  prepositional  force 
of  "with": 

consaben,^  privy  to  saben,  knowing 

CONTRA- 

CONTRA-  also  is  rare  as  a  prefix  forming  adjectives 

in   Provengal.     There   are   probably  only    two    certain 

examples  of  its  use  in  this  way.     In  these  words,  the 

simple  adjective  is  not  changed  much  by  the  prefixing  of 

CONTRA-:    it  serves  simply  to  bring  out  a  little  more 

clearly  the  idea  of  duality,  emphasizing  somewhat  the 

contrast    between    the    two    things    considered.      Thus 

there  are: 

contraengalier,  equal  to,  a  match  for    engalier,  equal 
contra-par,^  equal,  similar  par,  equal,  like 

DAVAN-,    DENAN- 

DAVAN-2  and  DENAN-^  are  both  used  in  forming 
one  adjective  by  being  prefixed  to  the  adjective  derrier, 
last.  In  this  new  word,  they  are  used  vnth.  exactly  the 
same  meaning  that  they  gave  to  nouns,  that  of  "before" 
or  "next  to."  Thus: 
davanderrier 


,         J      .       (  next  to  the  last  derrier,  last 

denanderner   ^ 

1  The  other  word  is  condecen,  fitting,  proper,  in  which  CON-  has 
no  force.  Decen  is  not  found  in  Pro  v.  Condecen  corresponds  to  the  Lat. 
condecens  derived  from  decens. 

2  For  the  source  of  these  prefixes,  see  the  nominal  formations. 


t  See  also  contrafort,  p.  468,  n.  1.  A  translation  given  for  the  word 
in  one  of  the  passages  in  which  it  occurs  is  plus  fort  que  lui.  Even  in 
this  example,  the  word  may  be  a  noun,  and  its  apparent  use  as  an 
adjective  only  a  matter  of  translation.     On  the  other  hand,  the  word 


Formation  of  Adjectives  483 

DE- 

DE-  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  used  as  an  adjec- 
tival prefix  at  all,  being  even  less  usual  here  than  in 
forming  nouns.  Derazonat  is  found,  but  DE-  here  appears 
to  be  a  substitution  for  DES-,  the  usual  negative  prefix, 
found  in  desrazonat,  existing  beside  desrazonar.  One 
other  word  with  the  prefix  DE-  is  denofezat,  which  may 
be  accomited  for  in  several  ways.  RajTiouard  gives  a 
verb  nofezar  or  nofegar,^  and  also  a  verb  desnofezar, 
whose  existence,  however,  he  assumes  from  the  adjective 
desnofezat.  In  denofezat,  DE-  may  be  a  substitution  for 
DES-,  or  it  is  possible  that  the  DE-  does  not  belong  to 
the  word  at  all,-  and  that  the  word  which  we  have  here 
is  nofezat,  simply  the  past  participle  of  nofezar.^ 

DES- 

The  use  of  DES-  as  an  adjectival  prefix  is  verj'  simple 
and  regular.  As  was  the  case  with  verbs  and  nouns,  in 
forming  new  adjectives  DES-  is  pre-eminently  the  nega- 
tive prefix.  Thus,  added  to  any  adjective  already 
existing,  it  simply  reversed  its  force.  There  seems 
to  be  only  one  word  in  which  the  prefix  shows  the  lack 
of  force  so  common  in  its  use  with  verbs.  This  is  dezavers, 
adverse,  inimical,  exactly  the  meaning  of  the  adjective 
avers.     Here  the  lack  of  force  is  due  probabh'  to  the 

1  Nofegar  probably  does  not  exist.     See  Levy  and  Sternbeck. 

2  See  the  examples  in  Levy,  II,  92.  Whichever  word  {denofezat  or 
desnofezat)  exists,  the  prefix  is  practically  forceless,  as  the  no  would 
have  already  contributed  the  force  which  DES-  regularly  gives. 

3  Meaning  "to  be  without  faith."  Its  Lat.  etj^mon  would  be 
*nonfidare. 


may  here  be  actually  an  adjective  meaning  "equally  strong,"  and  having 
the  idea  of  balance  described  for  CONTRA-  when  used  in  forming  nouns. 
See  Levy,  I,  .345,  for  the  passage  in  which  contrafort  occurs. 


484  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

separative  idea  contained  in  the  adjective  itself,  just  as  in 

the  verb  dessehrar}     The  other  words  are  all  regular  in 

form  and  meaning.     Thus: 

descabal,  poor  cabal,  excellent 

descarc,^  unloaded  care,  burden 

descomunal,  excessive  comunal,  common 

desconfes,  without  confession  confes,  confessed 

desrazonable,  unreasonable  razonable,  reasonable 

dezadrech,  improperly  behaving  adrech,  straight,  upright 

dezavers,  adverse,  inimical  avers,  adverse 

dezazaut,^  unpleasant  (person)  azaut,  gracious 

dezobedien,  disobedient  obedien,  obedient 

dezonest,]  dishonest  onest,  honest 

EN- 
EN-  is  a  little  more  varied  in  its  use  than  is  DES-, 
especially,  perhaps,  on  account  of  being  attached  both 
to  nouns  and  adjectives  to  form  adjectives.  The  possible 
cases  in  which  EN-  was  added  to  nouns  are  rather  rare, 
however,  and  EN-  was  apparently  used  as  a  preposition 
in  them,  the  whole  phrase  later  becoming  used  as  an 
adjective;^  in  the  cases  in  which  EN-  was  added  to 
adjectives,  it  shows  that  absence  of  force  so  noticeable  in 
the  formation  of  verbs. 

1  See  p.  425,  above,  and  p.  429  t- 

2  This  is  the  only  adjective  in  DES-  formed  on  a  noun,  yet  descargas 
instead  of  descargadas  occurs  in  two  examples  and  beside  the  simple 
form  cargadas.  Can  it  possibly  be  due  to  the  common  expression  tener 
a  care  =to  find  burdensome,  with  the  care  alone  supposed  to  have  adjec- 
tival force  ?     The  word  is  difficult  to  explain  otherwise. 

3  A  noun  as  given  in  the  examples  in  Levy,  but  it  seems  to  be  only  an 
adjective  used  substantively. 

*  All  possible  examples  of  this  kind  might  be  considered  as  post- 
verbal  adjectives,  the  verbs  being  formed  parasynthetically  on  the  simple 
adjectives.  But  as  the  two  words  given  here  would  be  the  only  examples 
of  postverbal  adjectives,  this  seems  unlikely. 


t  For  such  words  as  dezafiblat,  etc.,  see  the  parasyntheta,  p.  529. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  485 

The  formations  on  nouns  are  as  follows : 

embronc,  surly,  sullen  bronc,  harshness 

enfrun,  greedy,  insatiable  *frun  (<frumeny,  throat 

Attached  to  adjectives,  EN-  is  found  in: 

i  submissive    as    a  domengier  r 

vassal;  belonging  (noun        •] 

.  to  oneself  and  adj.)  (     ^    ^ 

endur,  hard  dur,  hard 

endurable,  lasting,  eternal  durable,  lasting 

envolontos,\  resolute  volontos,  desirous 

ENTRE- 

ENTRE-  is  found  in  a  very  few  adjectives  in  Provengal, 
where  it  has  both  the  reciprocal  force  and  the  absence  of 
force  of  the  verbal  prefix.  In  entrecamjable  it  has  recipro- 
cal force;  in  entremech,  intermediate,  from  mech,  middle, 
there  is  little  force  contributed  by  the  prefix.  This  is, 
however,  Latin,  coming  from  intermedius.  A  similar 
formation,  probably  imitated  from  entremech,  is: 
entremejan,  intermediate  mejan,  mean 

Entrecamjable,  mutual,  from  camjable,  changeable, 
is  the  only  word  showing  any  reciprocal  force.  Words 
containing  ENTRE-  denoting  unfinished  condition,  so 
common  in  other  Romance  languages,  seem  to  be  lacking 
in  Provengal." 

ES- 

ES-  is  exceedingly  rare  as  a  prefix  forming  adjectives. 
Only  one  word  seems  probable  as  a  formation  of  this  kind. 
This  is: 

esperjur,  perjured  perjur,  perjured 

1  See  Levy,  II,  497;  also  Virgil's  Aeneid,  i.  178  for  frumen,  throat. 

2  Cf.  the  Fr.  entr'ouvert  and  the  Sp.  entreabierto. 

t  Two  other  words  are  to  be  mentioned  here:  ensensible,  insensible, 
with  the  Lat.  negative  adjectival  prefix  IN-  (which  was,  however,  a  Lat. 
formation)  and  engres,  impatient,  violent,  hard,  which  is  a  rather  obscure 


486  Word-Formation  in  PROvENgAL 

In  the  one  example,  then,  the  prefix  luis  no  force  what- 
ever.^ 

PER- 

PER-  is  found  as  an  adjectival  prefix  in  a  very  few 
words.  Here  it  has  the  same  idea  of  completeness  which 
it  had  when  used  with  verbs  and  with  nouns.  It  there- 
fore intensifies  the  adjective  and  may  be  translated  as 
"very "  or  " exceedingly."     The  list  follows : 

peravinen,  very  agreeable  avinen,  agreeable    . 

perclar,  f  very  clear  clar,  clear 

SOBRE- 

The  prefix  SOB  RE-  (Latin  SUPER-)  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  of  all  the  Provencal  adjectival  prefixes, 
and  this  adjectival  use  is  perhaps  also  the  most  important 
use  of  SOB  RE-  in  Proven?  al.  Verbs  and  nouns  having 
the  various  forms  descended  from  SUPER-  as  prefixes 
are  frequent  in  most  of  the  Romance  languages,  but 
adjectives  with  this  prefix  are  much  rarer. ^  They  are 
not  found  in  Classic  Latin,  and  it  is  hard  to  find  traces 
of  them  even  in  the  vulgar  language;^-  yet  in  Provengal 

1  Words  like  escuichat,  esfrontat,  etc.,  are  common.  For  these,  how- 
ever, see  the  parasyntheta,  p.  531. 

2  Their  almost  complete  absence  from  Fr.  should  be  noted.  Sp.  has 
a  few  examples,  as  sobreagudo  and  sobrelleno.  In  It.,  words  of  this  kind 
are  more  usual. 

3  Some  examples  are,  however,  given  in  Du  Cange. 


word,  but  is  apparently  formed  from  *engresar<ingressare,  rush  in. 
Cf.  Fr.  engresser  (Korting,  No.  4,975).  For  such  words  as  ensagelat, 
entemorat,  etc.,  see  parasyntheta,  pp.  529-31. 

t  There  are  several  other  adjectives  beginning  with  PER-,  but 
these  all  seem  to  be  derived  from  verbs  beginning  with  this  prefix.  Thus 
by  means  of  the  suffix  -ABLE  the  adjectives  perdurable,  everlasting,  and 
perfazable,  efficacious,  are  derived  from  the  verbs  perdurar  and  perfaire. 
Pervis{t),  careful,  clever,  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  perveire  used 
as  an  adjective. 


Formation  of  Adjectives 


487 


they  were  exceedingly  common.  In  meaning,  SOBRE- 
had  regularly  the  force  of  the  adverb  "very,"  or  of  the 
prefixes  ''over"  or  "super"  as  in  "over-sensitive," 
"supersensuous."     The  list  is  as  follows: 


sobrabundos,  superabundant 
sobragut,  very  sharp 
sobranimos,  very  audacious 
sobrardit,  very  bold 
sobravar,  very  stingy 
sobrebel,  very  beautiful 
sobrebon,  very  good 
sobrecabal,  very  distinguished 
sobredelgat,^  very  slender 
sobredificil,  very  hard 
sobrefer,  very  wild 
sobreferotge,  very  ferocious 
sobreferven,  very  fervent 
sobrefori,  very  strong 
sobrefructuos,  very  fruitful 
sobregai,  very  gay 
sobregran,  very  large 
sobrelonc,  very  long 
sobreluminos,  very  luminous 
sobremal,  very  bad 
sobrenamorat,  much  enamored 
sobrenoble,  very  noble 
sobrenociu,  very  injurious 
sobreprecios,  very  precious 
sobresan,  very  sound 
sobresubstancial,  very  substantial 
sobrevil,  f  very  vile 


abundos,  abundant 

agut,  sharp 

animos,  courageous 

ardit,  bold 

avar,  avaricious 

bel,  beautiful 

bon,  good 

cabal,  distinguished,  excellent 

delgat,  slender 

dificil,  hard 

fer,  wild,  savage 

ferotge,  ferocious 

ferven,  fervent 

fort,  strong 

fructuos,  fruitful 

gai,  gay 

gran,  large 

lone,  long 

luminos,  luminous 

mal,  bad 

enamorat,  enamored 

noble,  noble 

nociu,  injurious 

precios,  precious 

san,  sound 

substancial,  substantial 

vil,  vile 


There  is,  however,  another  meaning  that  SOBRE- 
sometimes  gives  to  adjectives  in  Provengal,  though  much 
less  usual  than  the  one  already  cited.  This  second  use 
is  the  one  that  is  common  in  French,  and  is  typified 
by   surnaturel  which   means,  not    "very   natural,"    but 

1  Given  in  the  vocabulary  to  Appel's  Chrestomathy. 


t  For  sobrestoriat,  see  the  parasyntheta,  p.  531. 


488  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

"more  than  natural,"  "beyond  the  natural."    Darmesteter 

explains  this  as  a  parasynthetic  formation  consisting  of 

sur-nature-el,  the  termination  -EL  being  here  equivalent 

in  meaning  to  "that  which,"  and  giving  rise  to  other 

adjectives  which   from   their    form   camiot  possibly    be 

parasyntheta,  and  yet  have  the  same  kind  of  meaning 

as  surnaturel.     Of  this  type  is  surhumain,  formed  when 

surnaturel  was  supposed  to  consist  of  sur-j-naturel  and 

not   sur-\-7iature-\-el.     Thus   surhumain   is   an   adjective 

with  a  prefix  in  form,  but  it  is  parasynthetic  in  meaning. 

Of  this  type,  we  have  in  Provengal : 

sobre(h)uman,  superhuman  uman,  human 

sobreforsiii,  excessive,  extreme  forsiu,  firm 

sobremortal,  immortal  mortal,  mortal 

SUB- 

The  prefix  SUB-   (Latin  SUB-)   is  found  used  with 

several  adjectives  denoting  color.     SOTZ-<SUBTUS-  is 

not  found.     SUB-  merely  modifies  slightly  the  meaning 

of  the  adjective: 

subalbenc,^  whitening  slightly  alba,  dawn 

subfalb,  a  little  pale  falb,  pale 

subfalbenc,^  a  little  pale  falbenc,  pale 

siihrog,  a  little  red  rog,  red 

TRAS- 

TRAS-(<  TRANS-)  appears  to  exist  in  only  one  word, 
in  which  it  has  the  force  of  SOBRE-,  that  is,  it  means, 
"very"  and  is  the  opposite  of  SUB-.     The  example  is: 
trasanat,  very  old  anat,  old 

1  See  also  adjectival  parasyntheta,  p.  529,  note  1,  and  suffix-formations, 
p.  309. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DOUBLE  PREFIXES 

Before  leaving  prefixes,  it  will  be  necessarj'^  to  discuss 
the  phenomenon  of  double  prefixes,  which  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  double  suffixes,  treated  under  suffixes. "^  The 
question  of  the  prefixes,  just  as  that  of  the  suffixes,  is 
far  from  clear,  particularly  as  concerns  compound  pre- 
fixes. For  the  suffixes,  it  was  seen  that  certain  combina- 
tions, both  from  the  frequency  with,  which  they  were 
found,  and  from  their  evident  comiection  with  the  simple 
word,  were  nearly  certainh'^  attached  to  this  all  at  once  as 
one  suffix,  however  distinct  the  two  parts  might  have  been 
originally.  These  were  called  compound  suffixes.  In 
the  case  of  prefixes,  certain  combinations,  such  as  A-RE-, 
DES-A-  (DEZA-),  and  DES-EN-  (DEZEN-)  are  equally 
frequent,  yet  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  these  were 
ever  added  at  the  same  time,  which  is  all  that  distinguishes 
a  compound  suffix  or  prefix.  The  question  is  thus  a 
fine  one  and  hard  to  determine.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  word  vnth  its  two  suffixes  or  prefixes  must  show  a 
close  connection  with  the  simple  word  to  be  supposed 
to  have  been  a  compound  combination.  Thus  dezagensar, 
displease,    is    surely    DES-+a^ensar,    please,    and    not 

'  The  double  suffixes,  it  will  be  remembered,  were  almost  always 
added  to  nouns,  though  examples  were  given  of  their  addition  to  adjec- 
tives and  to  verbs,  just  as  single  suffixes  are  used  more  often  in  forming 
nouns,  though  very  common  in  both  adjectives  and  verbs.  The  single 
prefixes,  on  the  other  hand,  were  employed  most  freely  in  verbs,  although 
used  also  to  form  both  nouns  and  adjectives.  It  might  be  assumed, 
therefore,  that  the  double  prefixes  would  be  most  commonly  used  in 
verbs;  but  that  they  should  not  be  found  elsewhere,  as  is  the  case  (with 
the  possible  exceptions  of  DAVAN-,  DENAN-,  and  ENDE-  given 
above  under  single  prefixes,  because  of  very  early  use  together),  is  an 
unexpected  peculiarity. 

489 


490  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 

DEZA--\-gensar,  ornament,  therefore  not  a  compound 
prefix;  but  most  of  the  words  beginning  with  the  simple 
prefixes  A-  and  EN-  and  RE-  have  changed  the  simple  word 
little,  which  makes  it  harder  to  determine  their  forma- 
tion. Dezasaborar,  for  example,  might  equally  well  be 
formed  on  saborar  by  means  of  DEZA-,  or  on  asaborar  by 
means  of  DES-,  both  saborar  and  asaborar  having  the  same 
meaning.  Yet  this  very  persistence  of  the  word  with  the 
single  prefix  beside  the  simple  word  and  the  one  with  two 
in  nearly  all  cases  renders  doubtful  the  idea  of  a  compound 
prefix.  Many  Latin  simple  verbs  had  forms  with  the  prefix 
A-  existing  beside  them,  and  any  other  prefix  of  real  force 
such  as  DES-  could  be  attached  to  the  latter  to  change  the 
meaning,  but  a  prefix  DES-A-  joined  to  the  simple  word 
seems  not  to  have  been  thought  of  either  in  Latin  or 
later. ^  Instead,  it  is  the  simple  word  which  tended 
to  disappear,  though  it  generally  has  persisted  in  the 
Provencal  of  our  period.^ 

A.     compound  prefixes 

The  few  cases  in  which,  owing  to  the  non-existence  of 
any  word  with  a  single  prefix,  it  is  possible  to  see  com- 
pound prefixes   are   as   follows: 
acondormir,   put   to   sleep.      The     dormir,  sleep 

same  meaning  that  adorrnir  has. 

Condormir  does  not  exist. 
dezadolorar,  soften  doloirar,  grieve 

dezaloijar  (se),  withdraw  lotjar,  lodge 

dezembotonar,  unbutton  botonar,  button 

1  To  illustrate  this,  the  Prov.  words  may  be  compared  with  some 
Sp.  ones.  Sp.  has  the  three  most  usual  Prov.  double  prefixes  (DES-A-, 
DES-EN-,  and  A-RE-),  but  beside  examples  of  words  with  double 
prefixes,  we  regularly  find  here  corresponding  forms  with  a  single  prefix. 
Thus  we  find  arrollar  beside  desarrollar,  encargar  beside  desencargar, 
and  rehozar  beside  arrebozar. 

2  Cf.  in  Mod.  Fr.  the  gradual  disappearance  of  seoir  before  asseoir 
nd  in  Rp.  the  disappearance  of  rollar  before  arrollar. 


Double  Prefixes 


491 


A  very  few  other  examples  of  this  kmd  occur  among 
the  nouns  and  adjectives,  where  DAVAN-,  DENAN-, 
and  ENDE-,  compound  prefixes  formed  in  Latin,  have 
already  been  treated  as  single  prefixes.^ 


B.       REAL    DOUBLE    PREFIXES 


This  brings  us  to  the  real  double  prefixes,  of  which  a 
complete  list  will  be  given,  the  word  with  both  prefixes 
being  listed  beside  the  simple  word.  In  every  case,  the 
word  with  a  single  prefix  exists  also. 


Combinations  Beginning  with  a- 


A-CON- 
aconduire,  bring  up  or  near      (conduire) 


aconsegre,  pursue 

(consegre) 

A-DE- 

aderdre,  raise 

(derdre) 

AD-RE- 

adremirar,-  look  at 

(remirar) 

A-FOR- 

aforsenar,  go  crazy 

(forsenar) 

A-RE- 

aregardar,  look  at 

(regardar) . 

aremenar,  direct 

(remeyiar) 

arestancar,  stop,  staunch 

(resta/icar) 

aretener,  retain 

{retejier) 

aretraire,  retain 

(retraire) 

duire,  lead 
segre,  follow 


erdre,  raise 


mirar,  look  at 


senar,  give  sense 
to 


gardar,  look  at 
menar,  lead 
estancar,  staunch 
tener,  hold 
traire,  draw 


Combinations  Beginning  with  de- 


derevestir,  divest,  deprive 


DE-RE- 

(revestir) 


vestir,  clothe 


1  See  single  prefixes,  pp.  468-69,  472,  and  482,  above. 

2  This  is  the  only  word  in  which  we  find  AD-  as  a  prefix,  although 
the  combination  A-RE-  occurs  in  a  number  of  words.  Adremirar  is 
found  only  once,  and  for  this  case,  a  correction  to  adrechurar  has  been 
suggested,   and   seems  plausible. 


492 


Word- Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


Combinations  Beginning  with  des-^ 


dezacolhir,  reject 
dezadordenar,  put  in  disorder 
dezafigurar,^  disfigure  (  ?  ) 
dezagensar,  displease 
dezamonestar,  lead  astray 
dezamparar,  leave  go  of 
dezapareiser,  disappear 
dezaparer,  disappear 
dezapauzar,  lay  aside 
dezapohlar,  depopulate 
dezaponher,  lower 
dezaprendre,  unlearn 
dezarengar,  disarrange,      dis- 
turb 
dezaribar,  derive,  originate 
dezasaborar,  change  nature  of 
dezasegurar,  disconcert 
dezasezer,  unseat 
dezasolar,  isolate 
dezasotilar,  blunt,  dull 
dezavenir,]  disagree 


DES-A- 

(acolhir) 

(adordenar) 

(afigurar) 

(agensar,  please) 

(amonestar) 

(amparar,  protect) 

{apareiser) 

{aparer) 

(apauznr) 

{apoblar) 

(aponher,  join  ?) 

(aprendre,  learn) 

(^arengar) 

(,aribar) 

{asaborar) 

(asegurar) 

(.asezer) 

(asolar) 

(asotilar) 

(avenir,  please) 


colhir,  collect 
ordenar,  order 
figurar,  figure 
gensar,  ornament 
monestar,  warn 
parar,  prepare 
pareiser,  appear 
parer,  appear 
pauzar,  place 
poblar,  people 
ponher,  prick 
prendre,  take 
rengar,  arrange 

ribar,  approach 
saborar,  savor 
segurar,  assure 
sezer,  seat 
solar,  consolidate 
sotilar,  subtilize 
venir,  come 


dezencadenar,  strip  of  chains 
dezencargar,  luiload 
dezencolpar,  exculpate 
dezendreisar,  put  in  disorder 
dezenferrar,  unchain 


DES-EN- 

(encadenar) 
(encargar,  charge) 
{encolpar) 
(endreisar) 
{enferrar) 


cadenar,  chain 
cargar,  load 
colpar,  accuse 
dreisar,  straighten 
ferrar,  bind      with 
irons,  or  chains 


Combinations  Beginning  with  em-  and  en- 


empro metre,  promise 


EN-PRO- 
(prometre,  promise) 


metre,  put 


encomprendre,  inflame 


EN-CON- 

{comprendre,  inflame)         prendre,  take 


1  As  the  second  prefix  always  begins  with  a  vowel,  being  either  A- 
or  EN-,  DES-  has  been  written  DEZ-  in  these  combinations.  Thus 
DEZA-  and  DEZEN-. 

2  This  word  appears  to  be  doubtful. 


t  A  past  participle  dezapedit,  abandoned,  is  found,  and  would  seem 
to  indicate  the  existence  of  a  verb  dezapedir  which  is  not  found.  Cf. 
however,  the  Sp.  despedir,  discharge,  dismiss. 


Double  Prefixes 


493 


endevenir,  happen 


endezonrar,  dishonor 
endesprezar,  despise 


enrevironar,  surround 


entrasgitar,  intermingle 


EN-DE- 
(devenir,  become) 

EN-DES- 

{dezonrar) 
{desprezar) 

EN-RE- 

(revironar) 

EN-TRAS- 
(trasgitar) 


venir,  come 


onrar,  honor 
prezar,  prize 


vironar,  surroimd 


gilar,  tlirow 


Combinations  Beginning  with  entre- 


ENTRE-ES 
entrescridar,  call  one  another      {escridar) 


cridar,  cry 

Combinations  Beginning  with  es- 


escombatre,  subdue 
escometre,  defy 
escomprendre,  burn 
esconquerre,  gain,  obtain 
esconvenir,  suit  oneself 


esdemetre,  abandon 
esdevenir,  become 


esforsenar,  be  crazy 


ES-CON- 
(combatre) 
(cometre) 

{comprendre,  burn) 
{conquerre) 
(convenir,  suit) 

ES-DE- 
(demetre,  leave) 
(devenir,  become) 

ES-FOR- 
(forsenar,  be  crazy) 


ES-PER- 
esperforsar,  take  pains,  strive      (perforsar) 


batre,  beat 
metre,  put 
prendre,  take 
querre,  seek 
venir,  come 


metre,  put 
venir,  come 


senar,  give  sense  to 


forsar,  force 


Combinations  Beginning  with  for- 


forametre,  free 


FOR-A- 

(ametre) 


metre,  put 


Combinations  Beginning  with  mes- 


7nesapenir,  happen  ill 


MES-A- 

{avenir,  happen) 


venir,  come 


494  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

Combinations  Beginning  with  re-^ 

RE-CON- 
recomandar,  recommend  {comandar)  mandar,  order, 

send 
RE-DE- 
redemandar,  ask  again  {demandar)  mandar 

Combinations  Beginning  with  reire- 

REIRE-TRA- 

reiretramelre,  send  away  (Irametre)  metre,  put 

Combinations  Beginning  with  sobre- 

SOBRE-A- 

so6r  (e)a»ie2M7"or,2overmeasure   (amezurar)  wezurar,  measure 

sobr(,e)apareiser,  appear  over      (apareiser)  pareiser,  appear 

SOBRE-DES- 

sobredesvelhar,  be  awake  long      (desvelhar)  velhar,  watch 

SOBRE-EN- 
sobrenardir,  be  very  bold  {enardir)  ardir,  embolden 

Combinations  Beginning  with  sotz- 

SOTZ-A- 
sotz(a)menar,  lead  below  (amenar)  menar,  lead 

There  are  a  few  other  words  which  for  convenience 
may  be  placed  here,  as  they  have  the  two  prefixes  seen  in 
the  words  given  above  and  form  verbs.  They  are  not 
formed  on  verbs  however,  a  noun  (or  adjective)  being 
the  base  of  the  word.  Deforbanir,  for  example,  is  DE-  + 
{for)ban(ir) .  These  words  might  therefore  be  called 
parasyntheta  with  prefixes.     The  list  follows: 


deforbanir,  free    from    ban- 

Uorbanir) 

ban,  ban 

ishment 

dezacorar,  discourage 

{acorar) 

cor,  heart 

dezafachar,  strip,  imdress 

(afachar) 

facha,  face 

■  For  reemprenhar,  see  p.  495;  also  the  single  prefix  RE-,  p.  453. 

=  This  word  as  well  as  sobredesmezurar  are  listed  in  Raynouard, 
but  the  examples  given  show  only  the  adjectives  sobreamezurat  and 
sobredesmezurat,  apparently  parasyntheta  formed  on  amezurar  and 
desmezurar. 


Double  Prefixes 


495 


dezafilar,  blunt,  dllll  (afilar) 

dezafoTtir,  discourage  (afortir) 

dezaguisar,  disturb  (aguisar) 

dezapoderar,  wealjen  {apoderar) 

dezasaborir,     make     insipid,  (asaborir) 

cloy 

dezencarnar,  wean   from    the  (encarnar) 

flesh 

dezencrimar,  exculpate  {encrimar) 

dezenflamar,  cool  oflf  {enflamar) 

dezengraisar,  become  thin  (engraisar) 

enagrandar,  increase  (agrandar) 

enderocar,  overthrow  (derocar) 

esdesleiar,  abandon  the  right  {desleiar) 

reemprenhar,  reimpregnate  (emprenhar) 

sohrapoderar,'\  overpower  {apoderar) 


fil,^  edge 
fort,^  strong 
guisa,  guise 
poder,  power 
sabor,  taste 

cam,  flesh 

crim,  crime 
flama,  flame 
graisa.  grease 
gran(t),^  large 
roca,  rock 
lei,  law 

prenh,'  pregnant 
poder,  power 


1  Filar  exists,  but  only  with  the  meaning  of  "to  spin." 

2  In  dezafortir,  enagrandar,  and  reemprenhar,  the  parasyntheton  to 
which  the  prefix  was  added  was  formed  on  an  adjective. 


t  All  of  the  words  beginning  with  DES-  in  the  above  list  are  the 
opposite  of  the  verbal  parasyntheta  on  which  they  were  formed.  The 
prefix  EN-  brings  about  no  change  in  such  words.  RE-  gives  them  the 
idea  of  repetition,  and  SOBRE-  the  force  of  "over."  The  exact  meaning 
of  ES-  in  the  one  example  in  which  it  is  found  is  less  certain.  Another 
word  which  it  would  be  possible  to  place  in  the  above  list  is  dezempastrar , 
but  its  existence  is  uncertain. 


PART  III 
PARASYNTHETA 


INTRODUCTORY 
PARASYNTHETA  IN  GENERAL 

The  formation  of  words  by  the  addition  both  of  suffixes 
and  of  prefixes  has  now  been  fully  treated,  but  it  still 
remains  to  discuss  another  kind  of  word-formation,  and 
one  which  is  of  importance  in  Provengal — the  formation 
of  words  by  a  simultaneous  addition  of  both  suffix  and 
prefix.  This  kind  of  formation  can  be  well  illustrated 
by  an  example:  abrasar,  to  embrace,  is  formed  very 
clearly  on  the  noun  bras,  arm.  There  is  no  verb  brasar 
and  no  noun  abras,^  to  which  a  prefix  or  a  suffix  could  be 
added  to  make  it  conform  to  the  kinds  of  formation 
studied  above.  Our  base-word  is  bras,  and  from  this 
abrasar,  having  both  prefix  and  suffix,  is  derived.  Words 
formed  in  this  way  will  be  called  parasyntheta. 

All  three  classes  of  words  treated  fully  above  in  sepa- 
rate chapters — the  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs — may 
be  formed  parasynthetically  just  as  they  may  be  formed 
by  the  use  of  either  suffix  or  prefix  alone,  and  in  the  forma- 
tion of  parasyntheta,  as  in  every  other  kind  of  formation, 
one  kind  of  word  is  of  particularly  common  occurrence. 
In  suffix-formation,  nouns,  and,  after  them,  adjectives 
were  especially  important,  although  by  means  of  the  end- 
ings -ar  and  -ir  verbs  were  very  commonl}-  formed.  In 
prefix-formation,  nouns  and  adjectives  both  occupy  a 
minor  position,  and  the  verbs  are  to  be  observed  most 
attentively.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the 
verbs,    which  in  these  two    kinds  of   formations   taken 

1  In  Sp.  abrazo,  and  in  It.  abhraccio  are  found.     These  are,  however, 
merely  postverbal  nouns  derived  from  the  verbs  abrazar  and  abbracciare. 

499 


500  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

together  were  most  frequent,  should  be  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  the  formation  of  parasyntheta  also.  Nouns  of 
this  kind  are  very  rare;  and  adjectives  formed  in  this 
way  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist  at  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  having  the  participial  ending  -AT.  The 
verbal  parasyntheta,  on  the  other  hand,  fulfilled  a  real 
need  of  the  language,  as  \vill  be  shown.  These  will  be 
treated  in  the  first  chapter. 


CHAPTER  I 

FORMATION  OF  \T:RBS 

By  the  formation  of  verbal  parasyntheta,  Provengal 
was  often  enabled  to  express  in  a  single  word  ideas  which, 
but  for  this  means  of  expression,  would  have  to  be 
expressed  by  a  phrase.  In  such  words,  for  example,  as 
eslengar,  tear  out  the  tongue,  suffix  and  prefix  each  has 
its  own  function — the  suffix  that  of  turning  the  noun 
lenga  into  a  verb,  and  the  prefix  ES-  its  true  prepositional 
force.  Most  of  the  prefixes  used  in  forming  parasyntheta 
have  this  force,  although  there  are  prefixes  which  have 
little  force  of  any  kind.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
prefix  A-;  and  EN-  too  does  not  always  preserve  its 
prepositional  force. ^  It  is,  therefore,  particularly  difficult 
to  distinguish  true  parasyntheta  from  other  kinds  of 
formations.  The  verbal  ending  -ar,  and,  to  a  less  extent 
other  verbal  endings,  were,  as  has  been  seen,  used  to  turn 
nouns  into  verbs,  but  changed  the  meaning  of  the  nouns 
to  which  they  were  joined  as  little  as  possible.^  So  much 
for  suffix-formation.  Now,  as  has  also  been  seen,  certain 
prefixes,  especially  A-,  EN-,  and  RE-,  were  also  used  with 
the  verbs  thus  formed.  That,  clearly,  is  prefix-formation. 
But  let  us  suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  word  is 
found  having  both  prefix  and  suffix  and  that  no  corre- 
sponding form  without  the  prefix  appears  to  exist.     The 

1  That  is  to  say,  this  force  is  not  always  very  apparent,  particularly 
when  the  suffix  used  with  it  is  -IR,  but  such  force  is  generally  in  the 
base-word  itself  and  can  easily  be  discovered. 

2  This  is  similar  to  the  use  of  a  noun  as  a  verb  so  common  in  Engl. 
There  we  find,  for  example,  the  verb  "to  button"  beside  the  noun  "but- 
ton" and  the  verb  "to  cement"  beside  the  noun  "cement."  In  the  Prov. 
words  corresponding  to  these  verbs,  we  find  forms  both  with  and  with- 
out a  prefix.  Verbs  are  naturally  not  found  in  Romance  without  the 
infinitive  ending  of  some  conjugation. 

501 


502  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

verl)  would  then  appear  to  be  a  parasyntheton.  Yet  it 
is  not  necessarily  such  a  formation,  for  it  might  well  be 
supposed  that  the  verb  without  th(^  ])refix  had  disappeared 
after  a  new  and  longer  word  witli  no  difference  in  meaning 
had  been  formed  on  it  by  means  of  the  forceless  prefix, 
a  phenomenon  that  is  not  at  all  unusual.  Another  possi- 
bility w^ould  be  that  the  parasyntheton  and  a  verb  with 
a  prefix  should  have  been  formed  independently  of  each 
other,  although  this  is  not  so  probable,  and  is  indeed,  im- 
probable where  the  two  words  have  the  same  meaning. 
That  the  parasyntheton  should  have  been  formed  first,  and 
the  verb  without  prefix  made  out  of  it  is  equally  unlikely, 
as  the  fall  of  a  prefix  is  very  rare  in  Provencal.  In  con- 
sequence of  all  these  obstacles,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
make  any  hard-and-fast  division  into  groups  of  prefix- 
formations  on  the  one  hand  and  parasyntheta  on  the 
other.  A  still  further  difficulty  is  contributed  by  the 
postverbal  formations  to  be  studied  later.  For  example, 
if  entalhar  exists  beside  talhar,  talk,  and  entalh,  can  we 
say  at  first  sight  whether  entalhar  is  a  prefix-formation, 
a  parasyntheton,  or  a  suffix-formation,  or  indeed,  whether 
it  might  not  be,  on  the  other  hand,  the  base  on  which 
the  noun  entalh  was  formed  ?  This  last  difficulty  is, 
however,  less  than  would  first  appear,  for  from  the 
Latin  base-word  it  is  easy  to  see  whether  the  noun  was 
formed  from  a  verb  or  the  verb  from  a  noun;  and  there 
are  other  means  also  of  ascertaining  this.  The  only 
serious  difficulty,  then,  in  the  way  of  a  recognition  of  tiie 
parasyntheta  is  the  possibility  of  the  disappearance  of  the 
simple  verb  on  which  a  prefix-formation  might  have  been 
made.  If  there  were  many  such  cases,  the  number  of 
parasyntheta  would  be  materially  reduced.  In  nearly 
all  cases,  however,  except  the  w^ords  having  the  prefix 


Formation  of  Verbs  503 

A-,  the  prepositional  force  of  the  prefix  in  its  relation  with 
the  noun  reveals  parasyntheta.  In  the  cases  with  A-, 
and  some  cases  with  EN-  which  have  not  this  force,  the 
problem  is  more  difficult,  and,  though  a  comparison  vnth 
the  other  languages  is  often  helpful,  we  cannot  always 
be  certain  of  the  formation  of  words.  In  view  of  all 
these  difficulties,  words  will  be  placed  according  to  their 
apparent  formation.  If  beside  abatalhar,  for  example, 
batalhar  as  well  as  batalha  exists,  the  word  will  be  placed 
under  the  prefix  A-,  in  the  chapter  on  the  formation  of 
verbs,  in  the  Part  dealing  with  prefix-formation.  If  the 
simple  verb  does  not  exist,  or  is  not  found,  the  verb, 
derived  apparently  from  a  noun,  will  be  given  with  the 
parasyntheta,  as  is  the  case  with  adiar  or  ajornar,  for 
instance,  formed  probably  on  dia  and  on  jorn.  Occasion- 
ally, too,  where  a  simple  verb  does  exist,  if  it  has  gained 
from  the  noun  on  which  it  was  built  an  entirely  different 
meaning  from  that  seen  in  the  form  of  the  verb  beginning 
with  a  prefix,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  latter  is  a  para- 
syntheton  formed  on  the  noun.  Such  is  the  case  in  afilar, 
sharpen,  certainly  formed  on  fil,  edge,  instead  of  on  filar, 
which  means  only  "to  spin."  But  omitting  such  obvious 
exceptions  as  this,  words  will  be  classified  as  above  stated. 
Where  there  is  any  reason,  however,  for  supposing  that 
the  formation  may,  perhaps,  not  have  taken  place  accord- 
ing to  the  way  in  which  the  word  is  classified,  the  word 
and  its  formation  will  be  discussed  in  the  notes. 

The  verbal  parasyntheta  will  now  be  given.  They 
will  be  classified  principally  according  to  the  suffix  in 
which  they  end.  Each  of  these  divisions  will  be  sub- 
divided into  two  classes,  according  as  the  base-word  is  a 
noun  or  an  adjective.  The  final  subdivision  will  be 
according  to  the  prefix  that  begins  the  word. 


504  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

A.       SUFFIX   -AR 

The  first  case  to  be  treated  is  that  of  the  words  formed 
by  the  use  of  the  verbal  ending  -ar  together  with  the 
different  prefixes.  Here,  as  was  the  case  with  this  suffix 
when  used  without  a  prefix,  in  a  very  large  majority  of  the 
cases  the  new  formation  is  made  on  a  noun.  Yet  there 
are  cases,  numerous  enough  to  be  considered,  in  which  the 
base-word  is  an  adjective.  In  these  circumstances,  the 
suffix  -IR  might  be  expected,  and  is  actually  found  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  words  beside  the  form  in  -AR.  The 
question  is  how  these  forms  built  on  adjectives  came  into 
being,  and  it  seems  probable  that  as  -AR  was  incomparably 
the  most  important  verbal  suffix  and  formed  transitive 
verbs,  it  gradually  extended  its  power  to  the  domain  of 
-IR  and  formed  verbs  on  adjectives,  -IR  already  being 
used  to  make  transitive  verbs  in  the  parasynthetic  forma- 
tions, thus  giving  a  starting-point  for  possible  confusion. 
At  any  rate,  there  are  several  pairs  of  verbal  parasyntheta 
ending  in  -ar  and  in  -ir  and  having  precisely  the  same 
meaning:  such  are  afortar  and  afortir,  amortar  and  amortir. 
There  are  also  adjectival  formations  having  only  -ar} 

I.    FORMATIONS    ON    NOUNS 

The  following  formations  in  -AR  with  the  prefix  A- 

are  found: 

abastardar,  debase,  corrupt  hastart,  bastard 

abauzar,  upset,  knock  down  bans,  abyss,  precipice 

abelucar,  dazzle  beluga,  flash 

abladar,  sow,  strew  blat,  grain 

1  The  complete  list  is  made  up  of:  adolent  -ar,  -ir;  adols  -ar,  -ir; 
a/ort  -ar,  -ir;  afran(c)  -ar,  (qu)  -ir;  alent  -ar,  -ir;  amort  -ar,  -ir;  and 
aplat  -ar,  -ir.  These  words  are  interesting  as  showing  uncertainty  in  the 
verbal  endmg  to  be  added  at  the  time  of  their  formation.  For  all 
of  the  corresponding  Fr.  words,  only  the  ending  -ir  is  found.  In  Mod.  It., 
on  the  other  hand,  some  of  these  words  have  the  ending  -are  and  others 
-ire,  as  addolcire  and  affortire  beside  affrancare  and  allentare. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


505 


abrasar,  embrace 

acabalar,  provide 

acampar,  bring  together 

aclapar,  pile  up 

acoatar,^  join,  unite 

acodar,  lean 

acolar,  embrace 

acomjadar,  dismiss;  acomjadar 

(se),  take  leave  of 
acorar,  kill,  pierce;   encourage 
acorsar,  establish 
acostar,  accost 
a{d)escar,  allure,  entice 
adiar,  become  day 
afachar  (se),  adorn  (oneself) 
afaisar,  bind  up  in  bundles 
afaisar,  wear  out 
afamar,  famish 
afangar,  put  into  the  mud 
afilar,  sharpen 
afilhar,  adopt 
aflamar,  inflame 
afogar,  light,  kindle 
afondar  (se),  sink 
afonsar,  sink 
afrontar,    attack   from   in    front; 

insult 
agarsonar,  treat  like  a  servant 
aginhar,  reflect,  meditate 
ajornar,  become  day 
alachar,  to  milk 
alezerar,  distract 
alinhar,  align,  adjust 
alugorar,  illumine 
amaestrar,  arrange,  elaborate 
amarinar,^  man  a  ship 
amasar,  amass 
amastinar,  couple  a  bitch  with  a 

mongrel;    then  a  woman  with 

an  unworthy  man 

1  For  the  formation  of  acoatar,  although  it  is  connected  with  coa, 
see  also  the  formations  on  adjectives,  p.  515,  n.  1,  below. 

2  Or  possibly  formed  on  the  adjective  marin. 


bras,  arm 
cabal,  capital 
camp,  field 
clap,  pile 
coa,  tale 
code,  elbow 
col,  neck 
comjat,  leave 

cor,  heart 
cors,  course 
costa,  side 
esca,  bait 
dia,  day 
facha,  face 
faisa,  bundle 
fais,  burden 
fam,  hunger 
fane,  mud 
fil,  edge 
filh,  son 
flama,  flame 
foe,  fire 
fon{d),  bottom 
fon{s),  base 
fron{t),  front 

garson,  servant 
ginh,  genius,  spirit 
jorn,  day 
lack,  milk 
lezer,  leisure 
linha,  line 
lugor,  light 
maestre,  master 
marina,  shore 
masa,  mass 
mastin,  mastiff 


506 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


(iDioncjdr,  iiKikc  a  monk 

anientar,  annihilate 

anochar,  be  benighted 

a{z)onglar,  cling  to  with  the  nails 

aorfenar,  make  an  orphan 

aparselar,  parcel  out 

opnrsonar,  share;  endow 

fl/n'/ar,'  pile  up 

aplotnbar,^  strike  to  the  ground 

apoderar,  subjugate,  surpass 

aposturar,  adjoin 

apreizonar,  imprison 

arancar,  tear  out 

arenhar,^  attach  by  the  bridle 

arotar,  put  to  rout 

arozar,  water 

asazonar,  come  in  season 

asedar,  be  thirsty 

asenhorar,  dominate 

aserar,  become  late 

aseijar,  sit,  besiege 

atemorar,  terrify 

aterrar,^  overturn,  knock  down 

atizar,  kindle 

atrapar,  catch  in  a  trap 

atwpelar,  flock  together 

avalar,^  lower;  descend 

avermar,  engender  worms 

avertudar,  fortify  ( ?) 

avesprar,^  become  late 

avesvar,^  widow 

aviar,]  lead,  guide 


mongue,  monk 
nien{t),  nothing 
noch,  night 
ongla,  nail 
orfe{n),  orphan 
parsela,  parcel 
parson,  share 
pila,  pile 
plnm{h),  lead 
poder,  power 
postura,  position 
preizon,  prison 
ranc,^  rock 
renh,  rein 
rota,  rout 
ros,  dew 
sazon,  season 
set,  thirst 
senhor,  lord 
sera,  evening 
setje,  seat,  siege 
temor,  fear 
terra,  land 
tizon,^  firebrand 
trapa,  trap 
iropel,  flock 
val,  valley 
verm,  worm 
veriut,  virtue 
vespre,  evening 
veuva,  widow 
via,  way 


1  The  verbs  pilar,  priinar,  and  renhar  are  found,  but  apilar,  aprimar 
(see  p.  515),  and  arenhar  arc  clearly  not  derived  from  them. 

2  Much  more  probably  derived  from  the  adjective  ranc,  crooked, 
twisted.     See  formations  on  adjectives,  p.  515. 

3  There  is  also  a  verb  aterrir,  or,  at  least,  a  form  aterrit. 

*  The  verb  is  probably  formed  on  the  root  seen  in  this  word. 
5  Avalir  and  avesprir  are  also  found. 

«  Found  only  in  the  past  participle  avesvada,  for  which  a  correction  to 
aveusada  has  been  suggested.    Mistral  gives  a  form  aveusa  for  Mod.  Prov. 


t  Words  of  Lat.  origin  are  aomhrar,  shixdcKadumhrare  and  agenol- 
har,  \inGQ\<*a(jgenuculari  for  aggeniculari. 


Formation  of  Verbs  507 

The  prefix  AB-  is  found  in  one  Provengal  formation: 
abivernar,  turn  from  winter  ivern,  winter 

CON-  is  found  in  a  number  of  words,  but  probably 
in  not  more  than  one  Provengal  formation:^ 
companar,  nourish,  support  pan,  bread 

CONTRA-  appears  to  form  one  parasyntheton : 

contradentejar ,     turn     the     teeth     den{t),  tooth 
against,  bite  at 

DE-  is  found  in  the  following  words : 

defonsar,  knock  out  the  bottom  of    fons,  bottom 

a  cask 

deglaziar,  kill  glazi,  sword 

delinhar,  deviate  linha,  line 

derancar,^  tear  out  ranc,  rock,  reef 

derocar,  demolish,  overturn  roc,  rock 

devalar,  fall,  descend  val,  valley 

DEIS-  is  found  in  only  a  few  verbs,  in  all  of  which  it 
appears  to  have  been  prefixed  to  a  simple  verb.  It  is 
therefore  treated  only  under  verbal  prefixes. 

Under  DES-  are  found: 

dezarsonar,  unhorse  arson,  saddle 

desbragar,  unbreech  braga,  breeches 

desbregar,  help,  defend  brega,  quarrel,  fight;  troop 

descabar,  lose(  ?)  cap,  head 

descapdelar,  deprive  of  leader  capdel,  leader 

descaptalar,  deprive  of  one's  lord  captal,  leader,  chief 

descarnar,  strip  off  flesh;    divert  cam,  flesh 

from  booty 

descavilhar,  make  useless  (a  war-  cavilha,  pin,  bolt 

engine) 

descazernar,  drive  away,  dispossess  cazerna,  barracks 

descoblar,  uncouple  cobla,  couple 

1  The  other  words  are  given  under  the  verbal  prefixes.  Confinar 
and  confrontar  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  Prov.  parasyntheta,  but  con- 
frontare  was  probably  formed  in  Mediaeval  Lat.  and  confinare  maj^  have 
been  formed  there  also.     For  prefix-formations,  see  p.  420. 

-  Like  arancar,  probably  formed  on  the  adjective  ranc.  For  arancar, 
see  p.  515. 


508 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


descolar,  embrace' 
descrinar,  loose  the  hair 
descrocar,-  spread  about 
desfasar,  efface 
desflorar,  deflower 
desgainar,  unsheathe 
desglainr,  kill  with  the  sword 
desgontar,  unhinge 
desgranar,  pick  out  grains 
desgravar,  clear  of  sand,  clean 


col,  neck 
crin,  hair 
croc,  hook 
fasa,  face 
flor,  flower 
gnina,  sheath 
glai,  sword 
{gonta),^  hinge 
gran,  grain 
grava,  sand 


desgrunar,  take  away,  grain  by  grain  grun,  grain 


kit,  side 
lei,  law 

*mama,^  breast(?) 
muzel,  snout,  mouth 
natura,  nature 
OS,  bone 
pais,  country 
■pena,^  rock,  gable 
persona,  person 
piucela,  virgin 
poder,  power 


deslatar,  lay  aside 
desleiar,*  defame,  decry 
desmamar,  wean 
desmuzelar,  set  free 
desnaturar,  distort 
dezosar,  free  of  bones 
despaizar  (se),  leave  one's  country 
despenar,  throw  down 
despersonar,  depopulate 
despiucelar,  ravish,  deflower 
despoderar,    take    possession    of; 

cripple 
desrenar,  wear  out    ■  ren,  reins,  back 

desronlar,''  pour  out,  let  flow 

I  DES-  has  rather  unusual  force  here,  the  meaning  being  the  same 
as  that  of  acolar.  The  meaning  "instruct,"  which  Stichel  gives  for 
descolar,  probably  belongs  to  escolar,  which  is  not  a  parasyntheton  at  all. 

-  A  considerable  development  in  meaning  from  the  idea  of  "unhook," 
which  we  should  expect  from  the  formation  of  the  word. 

3  Not  found;  cf.,  however,  the  Fr.  gond. 

4  Pretty  certainly  a  parasyntheton,  although  deslei,  wrong,  exists. 

5  Only  the  derived  words  mamel  and  mamela  are  found  in  Prov. 
8  Cf.  the  Sp.  despenar  formed  on  peha. 

'  The  word  is  obscure,  but  it  appears  to  be  a  parasyntheton.  It  is 
probably  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  Fr.  derouter  (on  the  Prov. 
development  of  the  Lat.  rupta) .  Levy  has  a  note  on  desrontar  in  which 
he  quotes  Lespy  as  saying  that  the  Bearnese  desrontar  has  the  same 
meaning  as  derrountar,  which  Lespy  lists  beside  derroutar.  This  last 
word  certainlj'  resembles  the  Fr.  derouter.  The  n  might  be  due  to  con- 
fusion with  desro?npre,  tear  out,  the  m  of  this  word  becoming  n  before  i. 

As  for  the  meaning,  the  O.  Fr.  derouter  meant  "break"  or  "scatter," 
which  last  is  not  so  very  different  from  the  meaning  which  the  Prov. 
desrontar  appears   to  have. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


509 


destenehrar,  stupefy,  stun 
desterrar,    drive    from    the    land, 

exile 
destrapar,  break  camp 
destropar,  unpack,  unfold 
dezunar,  disunite 
desviar,  deviate 


tenebras,  darkness 
terra,  land 


Under  EM- 


irap,  tent 
trov,  troop 
uv,  one 
via,  way 

and  EN-  are  found: 


embacinar,  blind  (with  hot  basin  ?) 

embalsamar,  spread  with  balsam 

enibarcar,  embark 

embartar,  soil 

embastonar,  arm,  equip 

embatumar,  cement 

embausar,  throw  down 

emborsar,  put  in  the  purse 

emboscar,  put  in  ambush 

embotar,^  fill  a  cask 

embraiar,  draw  on  the  stockings 

embrasar,  embrace 

embregar,^  embarrass 

embridar,  tame,  fetter 

embrocar,^  pour  out  by  the  pitcher 

embro7icar,^-''  bend,  incline 

embugar,  satiate,  drink  immoder- 
ately 

emmaiselar,*  break  the  jaws 

empalancar  (se),  barricade  one- 
self ^ 

empenar,  feather 

empenhar,  mortgage 


bacin,  basin 
balsam,  balsam 
barca,  barque,  boat 
bart,  mud,  filth 
bastoji,  staff 
batum,  cement 
bans,  abyss 
borsa,  purse 
bosc,  woods 
bota,  tub,  vat 
braia,  stocking 
bras,  arm 
brega,  dispute 
brida,  bridle 
broc,  pitcher 
bronc,  projection 
buga,^ 

maisela,  jaw 

palanca,  foot-plank,  gangwaj^ 

pena,  feather 
penh,  pledge 


1  The  verbs  botar,  bregar,  brocar,  and  broncar  all  exist,  j'et  the  verbs 
having  the  prefix  EM-  are  clearly  not  formed  on  them,  but  on  the  nouns. 

2  There  is  also  a  word  embronhar  or  embroignar,  which  may  reallj'  be 
another  form  of  embroncar,  but  the  passage  in  which  it  is  found  is  too 
obscure  to  be  certain  of  its  origin.     See  Levy,  II,  365. 

3  This  word  is  found  only  with  the  meaning  of  "a  kind  of  fish." 
The  base  of  embugar,  however,  is  buga,  the  root  of  hugada,  wash,  bugadier, 
for  washing,  etc. 

'  Listed  here  with  two  m's,  because  the  prefix  ends  in  m  and  the 
word  itself  begins  with  it. 

5  Cf.  the  It.  spalancare  and  the  Sp.  espalancar. 


510 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


empenonar,  decorate  with  flags 

einpinhar,^  seize 

emplastrar,  put  on  a  plaster 

empreisar,  press  in  or  on 

empreizonar,  imprison 

enagar-  (se),  embark 

enalbrar  (se),  enarbrar  (se),  stand 
on  one's  head 

enarcar,  bend,  curve 

enarrar,  give  earnest-money 

enastar,  put  on  a  spit 

encabasar,  put  in  a  basket 

encantelar,  be  inclined  to 

encapar,^  reach,  attain 

encartairar  (encarterar) ,  quarter 

encastelar,  provide  with  fortifica- 
tions 

encausar,  drive  away 

encensar,  let  on  lease 

encledar,  pen  up 

encoblar,  to  couple 

encoirar,  cover  with  leather 

encolar,  glue 

enconhar,  cut  into 

enconventar,  promise,  settle 

encorar,  strike  in  the  heart;  tor- 
ture; excite 

encortinar,  hang  curtains 

encrimar,^  accuse 

endenairar,  convert  into  coin 

endentelhar,  cover  with  battle- 
ments 

'  Undoubtedly  a  variatiou  of  enipunhar  or  emponhar  formed  on 
punh  or  ponh,  fist. 

^  Inaquare,  from  which  this  might  be  phonetically  descended,  is 
found  in  Latin,  but  with  a  totally  different  meaning.  Enagar  (se)  is 
clearly  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  the  Prov.  aga. 

3  There  is  also  another  verb  encapar  meaning  "to  repair  (?)  a  mill- 
stone." 

*  Not  listed  in  the  dictionaries,  but  may  be  found  in  the  example 
given  for  encolar  (Levy,  II,  444). 

5  The  noun  incriminatio  is  found  in  Lat.,  but  encrimar  appears  to 
be    a    Prov.    formation. 


pcnon,  flag 

piastre,  plaster 
preisa,  press 
preizon,  prison 
agn,  water 
arbre,  tree 

arc,  arch 

arras,  earnest-money 

asta,  spit 

cabas,  basket 

cantel,  side 

cap,  head 

earlier,  quarter 

caslel,  stronghold 

(caws,  sidewalk)  ? 
cens,  quit-rent 
cleda,  screen,  hurdle 
cobla,  couple 
cuer  (coire),  leather 
cola,*  glue 
conh,  stamp 
conven{t),  agreement 
cor,  heart 

corlina,  curtain 
crim,  crime 
denier,  penny 
denlelh,  battlement 


Formation  of  Verbs 


511 


plunge  into  debt 


endeptar 

endeudar 

endiablar,  bedevil 

endosar,  put  on  the  back,  endorse 

en{n)erviar,  cover  with  sinews 

enfangar,  cover  with  mud 

enfeminar,  make  effeminate 

engarrar,  wound  in  the  knee^ 

enginhar,  plot,  deceive 

engorjar,  stuff,  cram 

engravar,  run  aground 

engregar,  heap  up 

engrunar,  separate,  detach 

enlimairar,^  soil  with  mud 

enmersar,  use 

enmortairar ,-  plaster 

enonglar,  grip,  cling  to 

enrabiar,  enrage 

enraizar,  enroot 

enrazinar,  put  forth  roots 

enredar,  envelop 

enriostar,  provide  with  braces 

enrozar,  moisten,  bedew 

enrudelar,^  provide  (wagon)  with  a 

truck 
ensacar,  put  into  a  sack 
ensapar,^  stumble,  sink  down 
enselhar,  saddle 
ensenhalar,  signal 


debt 


depte 

deuda 

diable,  devil 

do{r)s,  back 

nerf,  nerve,  sinew 

fane,  mud 

femna,  woman 

garra,  leg 

ginh,  trick 

gorja,  throat 

grava,  sand 

grec,  flock 

grim,  grain 

lim,  mud 

mers,  merchandise 

mortier,  mortar 

oiigla,  nail 

rabia,  rage 

raiz,  root 

razina,  root 

ret,  net 

*riost  {riosto  is  given  in  Mistral) 

ros,  dew 


sac,  sack 


selha,  saddle 
senhal,  signal 


1  Cf.  the  meaning  of  engarramen,  listed  under  the  suffix  -AMEN, 
p.  95,  n.4,  above. 

2  Enlimairar  and  enmortairar  both  have  the  ending  -airar.  In 
enmortairar  the  -air  represents  a  different  development  of  the  -ier  of 
mortier.  The  same  is  also  true  of  endenairar  above.  Liniier  is  not 
found,  however,  and  the  word  appears  to  be  formed  on  lim  by  means 
of  a  verbal  double  suffix.  See  p.  403.  It  was  probably  influenced  in 
its  form  by  the  analogy  of  enrnortairar,  which  had  much  the  same 
meaning. 

3  Many  verbs  are  given  in  this  list  beside  which  no  simple  noun  is 
found.  Thus  there  is  enrudelar  beside  which  rudela  (with  the  meaning 
of  "truck")  is  not  found.  Ridelle,  however,  is  found  with  this  meaning 
in  Fr. 

4  Sapa  is  not  found  in  Pro\-.,  but  maj'  have  existed  there  also.  Sape, 
hole,  ditch,  is  found  in  Fr.,  coming  from  a  popular  Lat.  t>appn. 


512 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


enserpelhar,^  pack  in  sackcloth 

ensotzierranhar,^  put  in  the  cellar 

entaiar,^  cover  with  dirt 

entapisar,  decorate 

entavernar,  put  in  a  tavern 

enterrar,  bury,  inter 

entestar,  affect  the  head,  infatuate 

entorrar,  lock  up  in  a  tower 

entrcguar,  make  peace 

entrenar,  interlace 

enverinar,  poison 

enviscar,  catch  with  bird-lime 

envolcar,*\  wrap  up 

Under  ENTRE-  may  perhaps  be  placed ; 

entrepachar{se),  occupy  oneself 
Under  ES-  and  EIS-: 


tapis,  carpet,  hanging 

taverna  tavern 
terra,  land,  earth 
testa,  head 
torre,  tower 
tregua,  truce 
trena,  tress,  braid 
verin,  poison 
vise,  bird-lime 


aura,  air 
aurelha,  ear 

bast,  a  dwarf  reed 
bras,  arm 
budel,  bowels 
buerna,  mist 
busca,  straw,  reed 


eisaurar,  rise,  soar 
eisaurelhar,  cut  the  ears  off 
eiservigar,^  sprain  the  neck 
esbastar  ( ?),  take  away  the  "  bast " 
esbrasar,  raise  the  arms 
esbudelar,  disembowel 
esbuernar,  to  obscure 
esbuscar,  to    clear    (a    ditcla)    of 
plants 

1  The  only  noun  found  is  serpelhiera,  sackcloth  (Fr.  serpillikre), 
whose  origin  seems  doubtful.  A  form  without  the  suffix  -lERA  may 
possibly  have  existed. 

-  Sotzterranh  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  nor  is  even  terranh.  *Sotzterranh 
(an  imitation  of  the  Lat.  subterraneus  with  SOTZ-  from  SUBTUS 
substituted  for  SUB)  probably  existed,  meaning  "cellar"  (cf.  the  Fr. 
souterrain) ,  and  ensotzterranhar  may  be  a  parasyntheton  formed  on  it. 

5  Again  no  simple  noun  is  found.  Entaiar  is,  however,  apparently, 
only  a  variation  of  entacar  (see  p.  435)  from  taca,  spot. 

*  Confusion  with  envolopar  ?    The  simple  word  vole  means  "volcano.', 

5  Cervigal,  nape  of  the  neck,  is  found,  but  not  cervic. 


t  A  word  somewhat  obscure  in  form  is  entauscar,  put  on  a  bier.  This 
should  apparently  be  corrected  to  entaucar,  which  would  be  formed  on 
tanc,  bier.  Entalugar  is  obscure  both  in  form  and  meaning.  Encoholar, 
prevent,  also  is  obscure  in  form. 

A  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  encarnar,  incarnate<incarnare. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


513 


escabelhar,  dishevel  (hair) 
escabesar,  decapitate 
escaisar,^  break  with  the  teeth 
escampar,  spread  abroad 
escantelar,  strike  off  corners 
escarrasar,  card  wool,  comb 

coarsely 
escartairar,^  divide  into  four 
escaudurar,  become  warm 
escogosar,*  make  cuckold 
escoisar,  tear  apart,  divide  at  thighs 
esdesleiar,^  violate  the  law 
esfasar,  efface 
esfelar,  be  angry 
esfoirar,  have  diarrhoea 
esfredar,^  confuse,  annoy 
esglandar,  strike  off  acorns 
esglaziar,  kill 
esgolar,  make  a  slit  or  scollop  in 

clothes 
esgrul{h)ar,  strip  of  bark 
esleiar,  justify,  vindicate 
eslengar,  tear  out  the  tongue 
esmerdar,  soil 
espanar,  wean  a  child 
espolsar,  beat  the  dust  out  of 
esponchar,  break  the  point  of 
espreizonar,  take  out  of  prison 
estra'sar,  follow 
esvarrar,''  confuse 


cabelh,  hair 

cabes  (cabetz),  head 

{cats,  cheek)  ? 

camp,  field 

cantel,  corner 

{ca'Tasa,"^   woodpile,    vine-prop) 

cart{ier)  quarter 
caudura,  heat 
cogotz,  cuckold 
coisa,  thigh,  hip 

fasa,  face 

fel,  gall 

foire,  diarrhoea 

(Germanic  frida,  peace)  ? 

glan{t),  acorn 

glazi,  sword 

gola,  throat 

gru{e)la,  bark 
lei,  law 
lenga,  tongue 
merda,  dirt,  filth 
pan,  bread 
pols,  dust 
ponch,  point 
preizon,  prison 
trasa,  trace 
(Germanic  wara)  ? 


1  There  is  also  another  verb  escaisar  of  different  formation,  meaning 
"to  ridicule." 

2  Probably  escarrasar  is  unconnected  with  this  word  and  the  resem- 
blance is  accidental.  Escarrasar  appears  to  be  formed  on  some  simple 
word  coming  from  cardus,  thistle  (the  only  word  found  being  cardon), 
by  means  of  the  prefix  ES-  and  the  verbal  ending  -asar.  Cf.  the  It. 
scardassare.     See  also  Korting,  No.  1933. 

3  The  verbal  double  suffix  -AIRAR  may  be  seen  here.     See  p.  403. 
*  There  is  also  another  escogosar  meaning  "to  cut  down  (a  tree)." 

'  Treated  also  under  double  prefixes,  p.  495. 

s  Cf.  the  O.  Fr.  esfreer. 

»  Found  only  in  the  past  participle  esvarrat. 


514 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


esventrar,  eviscerate 
esvertudar,     take     away    one's 

strength,  conquer 
esviar,  f  t^et  out  on  the  way 

Under  FOR-: 

forlinhar,  fall  off,  degenerate 
forviar,  mislead,  turn  astray 

Under  PER-: 

perbocar,  roughcast  (a  wall) 
percolar,  embrace 
perfogar,  suffocate 
perfondar,  precipitate 
perlestar,  assure 

Under  RE-: 

recercelar,^  curl 
recular,  recoil 
regorjar,  overflow 
relinhar,  resemble 
remendar,  fix  up 
reposhirar,  hide 
retrasar,  f  t  retrace 

Under  REIRE-: 

reir{e)olhar,  look  back 
Under  TRAS-: 

trasbucar  (also  trabucar),  stumble 

trasdosar,  burden 

trasnuechar,  be  awake  all  night 


venire,  belly 
vertut,  virtue 

via,  way 


linha,  line 
via,  way,  path 


boca,  mouth 
col,  neck 
foe,  fire 
fon{d),  bottom 
testa,  head 


c%d,  back 

gorja,  throat 

linha,  line 

menda,  fault;  improvement(?) 

postura,  position 

trasa,  trace 


uelh,  eye 


buc,  stump,  trunk 
dos,  back 
nuech,  night 


'  Probably  formed  on  *cercel  (cf.  the  Fr.  cerceau)< Lat.  circellum, 
hoop. 


t  An  obscure  word  is  escarar,  ornament(?)  or  macerate(?). 

ft  Other  words  beginning  with  RE-  that  should  be  observed  are 
reviscolar,  revive,  resuscitate,  and  revolinar,  turn  about.  Reviscolar 
is  probably  the  Prov.  development  of  a  parasyntheton  already  formed 
in  Lat.  This  Lat.  word  would  be  *reviscerare  (the  noun  revisceratio 
is  found),  showing  dissimilation  in  its  Prov.  development.  Revolinar 
is  placed  here  for  convenience.  Revohina,  derived  from  revolver,  is 
found  in  Prov.,  and  revolvinar  would  be  the  ordinary  verbal  derivative  of 
it.     Revolinar  may  be  due  to  confusion  with  revolare. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


515 


II.    formations  on  adjectives 

The  prefix  A-  is  found  in  the  following  words: 
acoatar,^  join,  unite 


acoindur,  make  acquainted 
acomunalar,  divide  with 
adolentar,'^  torment 
adolsar,^  sweeten,  soften 
aermar,  devastate 
afortar,^  fortify 
afrancar,^  free,  soften 
agradar,  delight,  please 
alargar,  enlarge,  open 
aleialar,  justify 
alentar,^  delay,  slow  down 
alongar,  lengthen,  prolong 
amenudar,  diminish 
amortar,^  extinguish 
aplatar,^  level 
aprestar,  prepare 
aprimar,^  make  fine  or  thin 
aprimairar,'^  approach,  advance 
aprivadar,  tame 
arancar,^  tear  out 
arasar,  level,  raze 
aredar,  stiffen 

asabentar,^  inform,  acquaint  with 
aserenar,  be  calm 
atruandarj  allure,  bewitch  {truan- 
dar) 

1  Possibly  formed  on  *coat,  tailed.  The  usual  form  of  the  word  is 
caudat,  but  coat  (which  might  regularly  have  been  formed  on  cod)  is 
found  in  the  compound  form  capcoat  beside  capcaudat.  For  another 
example  of  the  kind  of  formation  seen  in  acoatar,  see  aprivadar  in  the 
same  list.  The  preservation  of  the  t  as  tin  acoatar  may  possiblj'  be  due 
to  the  late  formation  of  the  word. 

2  A  similar  verb  in  -ir  also  exists.     See  -IR. 

3  Primar  exists  too,  but  only  with  the  meaning  of  "dominate," 
"surpass,"  on  which  aprimar  cannot  be  formed. 

« An  example  of  a  possible  compound  verbal  suffix  -AIRAR.  See 
p.  403,  above. 

5  See  also  formations 'on  nouns,  p.  506. 

6  The  Httle  Levy  has  asabensar. 


coinde,  pleasant 

comunal,  common 

dolen{t),  grievous 

dolz,  dols,  sweet, 

erm,  barren 

fort,  strong 

franc,  free 

grat,  grateful 

larc,  large,  broad 

leial,  loyal 

len{t),  slow 

lone,  long 

menut,  small 

mort,  dead 

plat,  flat 

prest,  ready 

prim,  first,  fine 

prim(ier),  first 

privat,   private,  intimate,  tame 

ranc,  crooked,  twisted 

ras,  level 

rede,  stiff 

saben,  wise,  knowing 

seren,  calm 

truan,  poor,  wretched 


510 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


averar,  aver,  certify 
avilar,  make  vile 
avivar,  vivify 
aval  pit  lHlr,^\  make  afraid 

Under  DES-,  \ve  fiiid: 

desleialnr,  disgrace 
dezunar,^  disunite,  separate 

Under  EIS-: 

eissopinar,  bend  backwards 
eis{s)ordar,  deafen 

Under  EM-  and  EN-: 

cmmaticar,  shut  in(  ?)- 
empirar,^  become  worse 
encabolar,  make  powerful 
encautar,*  advise,  warn 
encertar,*  make  certain 
engrosar,  become  stout 
enraucar,*^\■\  become  hoarse 

Under  ES-: 

esmancar, ttt  t'ut  off  the  hand 


ver,  true 
vil,  vile 
viu,  lively 
volpilh,  cowardly 


(des)leial,  (dis) loyal 
un,  one 


sopi7i,  supme 
sort,  deaf 


munc,  crippled,  defective 

cabal,  powerful 
caul,  cautious 
cert,  certain 
gros,  stout 
rauc,  hoarse 


inane,  one-handed,  crippled 


'  Disunirc   is   found   in    Lat. 

2  Probably  the  meaning,  although  the  connection  with  mane,  which 
appears  to  be  the  base-word,  is  not  very  clear.  "To  clean"  has  also 
been  suggested  as  a  translation. 

3  The  form  of  the  word  indicates  Fr.  influence,  and  it  is,  indeed, 
found  in  a  text  which  shows  traces  of  this  influence.  The  Prov.  form 
naturally  to  be  expected — empejorar — is  not  found,  but  a  noun  empejo- 
ramen  exists. 

*  The  adjectives  incautus,  incertus,  and  irrnucus  are  found  in  Lat. 


t  For  such  words  as  anualhar,  apejorar,  asadolar,  asotilar  apparently 
formed  on  adjectives,  see  the  verbal  prefix  A-,  p.  416. 

tt  A  parasyntheton  beginning  with  EN-  that  is  formed  on  an  adverb 
instead  of  an  adjective  is  encantar,  put  a  price  on.  The  base-word  is 
cant,  how  much  (  ?). 

A  word  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  EN-  is  emprenhar,  impregnate 
<i7npracgnare. 

ttt  Words  of  Lat.  origin  having  the  prefix  ES-  are  escaldar,  hcat< 
excaldarc  and  csclarar,  shine <exclarare. 


Formation  of  Verbs  517 


Under  RE- 


recrusar,  grow  worse  crutz,^  rough,  raw 

revivar,  revive  via,  living 

III.      FORMATIONS    ON   VERB-STEMS 

It  seems  to  be  necessary  to  make  this  division  on 
account  of  one  word : 
abeurar,^  drench,  soak  beure,  drink 

B.       SUFFIX    IR- 

The  next,  and  practically  the  only  other  suffix  used 
in  forming  parasyntheta  is  -IR,  which  is,  however,  of  con- 
siderable importance.  In  the  chapter  on  suffix-formation, 
-IR  was  shown  to  have  formed  many  verbs,  such  as 
hrunir  and  rogir,  on  adjectives,  nearly  all  of  these  verbs 
being  intransitive.  But  besides  these  intransitive  verbs, 
there  are  other  transitive  ones ;  only  these  verbs  are  formed 
by  using  a  prefix  as  well  as  a  suffix  with  the  adjective, 
and  are  therefore  real  parasyntheta.  In  these  cases,  the 
prefixes  have  real  force,  even  A-  and  EN-,  just  as  they 
did  in  the  parasyntheta  in  AR-,  except  that  here,  the 
base- word  being  an  adjective  instead  of  a  concrete  noun, 
their  prepositional  force  is  not  so  clear.  We  may  say  that 
abelir  means  "to  turn  (-ir)  to  (a)  the  beautiful  (bel),"  or 
enfeblir,  "to  turn  into  the  weak,"  by  which  rendering 
the  adjective  is  seen  to  be  used  as  an  abstract  noun.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  the  other  parasyntheta  in  the  list. 

'  See  Levy,  I,  422,  under  cru.  For  recrusar,  see  also  Flamenca, 
line  3312. 

2  Owing  to  the  number  of  corresponding  forms  in  the  other  Romance 
languages,  the  Fr.  abreuver,  the  It.  abbevcrare,  and  the  Sp.  abrevar,  it 
seems  necessary  to  suppose  an  *adbiberare  formed  in  Latin.  Adhibere 
is  found,  but  has  left  no  trace.  *Ad-biberare  was  probably  formed  on 
this  word  by  the  addition  of  -ARE.  See  Korting,  No.  1359,  and  ALL, 
I,  250. 


518  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

There  are  also  several  parasyntheta  ending  in  -ir 
built  on  nouns,  and  these  are  transitive  likewise. '^  It  is 
rather  sui'prising  to  find  -ir  in  any  formations  on  nouns, 
as  it  was  so  rare  in  the  verbs  formed  on  nouns  without  a 
prefix,  but  -ar  being  used  in  formations  on  adjectives  as 
well  as  on  nouns,  and  the  confusion  of  verbal  endings 
being  seen  in  certain  duplicate  forms,  -ir,  possibly  by  a 
kind  of  reflex  action,  was  used  to  form  certain  parasyn- 
theta on  nouns.  Bastart,  an  adjective,  but  also  used  as  a 
noun,  may  have  helped  also  as  a  starting-point  for  the 
formations  on  nouns.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  a  very 
few  nouns  are  at  the  base  of  all  these  formations,  joglar, 
podest  and  senhor,^  as  well  as  hastart,  being  each  used  with 
two   different   prefixes. 

I.      FORMATIONS    ON    NOUNS 

A-  is  found  in: 

abastardir,  debase,  corrupt  bastart,^  bastard 

aborzezir,  become  a  burgher  borzes,^  burgher 
a  joglar  ir  (se),  become  a  minstrel       joglar,  minstrel 

anochir,  become  night  noch,  nu{e)ch,  night 

apoderir,  overcome,  conquer  poder,  power 

avalhir,  faint,  disappear  valh,  valley 

DES-  is  found  in : 
despodestir,^  renounce;    withdraw 
dessenhorir,  deprive  of  lordship         senhor,  lord 

1  -EZIR,  pre-eminently  the  suffix  used  in  forming  intransitive  verbs, 
is  the  only  one  which  appears  to  be  regularly  intransitive  in  the  parasyu- 
thetic  formations. 

2  All  of  these  are  feudal  terms,  which  shows  the  time  of  the  formation 
of  these  words. 

3  Also  an  adjective.  Cf.  abordir  given  in  the  list  of  formations 
on  adjectives.  The  simple  word  bort  is  found  only  as  an  adjective, 
whereas  bastart  was  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  as  a  noun. 

*  Used  as  adjective  and  noun.  In  aborzezir,  the  suffix  -EZIR  is 
only   apparent. 

6  Despodestir  and  empodestir  appear  to  be  formed  on  a  noun  podest 
that  is  not  found,  although  jjodestat  {<potestatem)  exists.     It  is  possible, 


Formation  of  Verbs 


519 


EM-  and  EN-  are  found  in: 


embandir,    cover   with   bands   or 

trimmings 
embastardir,  debase 
embeguinir,  make  devout 
embotir,  fill,  stuff 
emparatgir,  raise,  enhance 
empodestir,^  put  in  possession 
engolir,  swallow 
engranir,  plant  seeds 
enjoglarir  (se),  become  a  minstrel 
enorgolhir,  become  proud 
ensenhorir,  act  as  lord 
envergonhir,  be  ashamed 

ES-  is  found  in : 

esbair,  be  amazed 


banda,  band 

bastart,^  bastard 
beguina,  bigot 
bofa,  cask 
paratge,  rank 

gola,  throat 
gi-an,  seed 
joglar,  minstrel 
orgolh,  pride 
senhor,  lord 
vergonha,  shame 


ba(f)  (an  exclamation  ?) 


II.      FORMATIONS    ON    ADJECTIVES 


Under  the  prefix  A-  are  found: 


abelir,  beautify 
abordir,^  miscarry 
adolentir,  grieve,  afflict 
afeblir,  weaken 
afortir,  strengthen 
afranquir,  free 
afrevolir,  weaken 
agelozir,  make  jealous 
alentir,  slacken,  retard 
amalir,  make  bad,  harm 
amortir,  kill,  deaden 
anoblir,  ennoble 
apaubrir,  impoverish 
aplanir,  level,  smooth 
aplatir,  flatten 
aredondir,  round 


bel,  beautiful 

bori,  illegitimate,  false 

dolen{t),  painful,  lamentable 

feble,  weak 

fort,  strong 

franc,  free 

frevol,  weak 

gelos,  jealous 

len{t),  slow 

mal,  bad 

mort,  dead 

noble,  noble 

paubre,  poor 

plan,  smooth 

plat,  flat 

redon,  round 


however,  that  the  ending  -at  may  have  been  taken  for  a  suffix,  particularly, 
perhaps,  because  of  the  existence  of  the  word  podesladilz,  apparently 
having  the  double  suffix  -ADITZ. 

1  See  note  3,  p.  518.  '  See  note  5,  p.  518. 


520 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


aiendrir,  touch,  make  tender 
avilanir,  make  vile,  degrade 
avilir,  make  vile. 

Under  the  prefix  EM- 

emhelhir,  beautify 
emblanquir,  whiten 
empaubrir,  impoverish 
empegnir  (se),  act  foolishly 
encabalir,  make  powerful 
encarir,  become  dear 
encortezir,^  become  courtly 
endruir  (se),^  become  fat(?) 
endurir,  become  hard 
enfadir,^  disgust  (?) 
enfeblir,  weaken 
enfelonir,  make  cruel;   irritate 
enfolatir,^  drive  or  go  mad 
enfolir,  drive  mad 
enfortir,  strengthen 
enfosquir,^  darken 
enfrevolir,  weaken;   grow  weak 
engalhardir,  fortify,  encourage 
engelozir,  make  jealous 
englotonir,  make  gluttonous 
engordir,  fatten 
engroisir,  thicken 
enleconir,  covet 
enlenir,  soften 


tendre,  tender 
vilan,  coarse,  rustic 
vil,  vile 

(and  EN-)  we  find: 

belh,  beautiful 

blanc,  white 

paubre,  poor 

pec,  foolish 

cabal,  rich,  powerful 

car,  dear 

cortes,  courtly 

dur,  hard 
fat,  silly 
feble,  weak 
felon,  cruel 

fol,  crazy 

fort,  strong 

fosc,  dark 
frevol,  weak 
galhart,  gay,  bold 
gelos,  jealous 
gloton,  gluttonous 
gort,  fat 

gros,  large,  thick 
lee  {on),  greedy 
len,  soft 


1  The  verbal  ending  -ezir  is  only  apparent,  as  the  meaning  of  the 
word  shows. 

*  The  base-word  is  apparently  the  adjective  corresponding  to  the 
Fr.  dru,  compact,  thick,  strong.  The  only  simple  word  given  in  the 
dictionaries,  however,  ig  the  adverb  drut,  hard,  fast;  but  probably  this 
represents  nothing  but  an  adverbial  use  of  what  was  really  an  adjective, 
such  as  is  seen  in  the  Fr.  pousser  dm.  Cf.  also  in  Mistral  s'endrudi, 
become  fat. 

'  Cf.  enfadi  in  Mistral  and  the  translations  of  it.     Cf.  also  enfadezir. 

*  One  of  several  words  formed  on  *folat,  which  probably  was  derived 
ivova  fol  and  meant  "crazy." 

6  Infuscare,  found  in  Lat.,  would  give  enfoscar.  When  enfosquir 
was  formed  on  fosc  according  to  the  usual  Prov.  process,  enfoscar  may 
have  disappeared. 


Formation  of  Verbs 


521 


enmalautir,  become  ill 
enmalir,  become  angry;    irritate? 
enmanentir  (se),  become  rich 
enorgolhozir,  make  proud 
enredonir,  make  round 
enribaudir,  lead  life  of  ribaldry 
enriquir,  make  rich,  powerful 
ensalvatgir,  drive  wild 
ensanhtir,  sanctify  oneself 
ensordir,  become  deaf 
ensuperbir,^  become  proud 
entruandir,  live  like  a  vagrant 
envermelhir,  become  red 
envilanir,  degrade,  insult 

And  under  ES-  are  found: 

esbaudir,  rejoice,  brighten 
esclarir,^  brighten 
esfelnir,  become  furious 
esflauir,^  become  soft 
esfolir,  befool,  delude 
esfortir,  strengthen 
esmaneyitir,  become  rich 
esmortir,  extinguish 
esvilanir,  j  degrade,  outrage 


malaut,  ill 

mal,  bad 

7nanen{t),  rich,  powerful 

orgolhos,  proud 

redon,  round 

rihaut,  ribald 

ric,  rich 

salvatge,  wild 

sanht,  saintly 

sort,  deaf 

truan{t),  vagrant 
vermelh,  vermilion 
7nlan,  rustic,  coarse 


baut,  bold,  gay 

clar,  bright 

fel,  felon,  cruel(  ?) 

flau,  soft(  ?) 

fol,  foolish 

fort,  strong 

manen(t),  rich 

mort,  dead 

vilan,  coarse,  rustic 


And  under  RE-: 

refregir,  to  cool 
refresquir,  refresh 
rejovenir,  rejuvenate 
reverdir,     become     green 
revive 


freg,  cold 
fresc,  fresh 
joven,  young 
again;     vert,  green 


1  Superb  is  not  found  in  Prov.     The  word  looks  like  a  learned  forma- 
tion on  the  Lat.  superbus. 

2  Esclairir  is  also  found,  as  well  as  esclarar<exclarare,  given  above, 
p.  516,  n.  ttt. 

3  See  Stichel,  51. 


t  An  obscure  word,  estavanir,  faint  (  ?)  or  become  faint  ( ?),  maj'  also 
be  placed  here,  as  it  appears  to  be  formed  on  the  adjective  van,  feeble, 
exhausted.  Esvanir  would,  of  course,  be  the  regular  formation.  See 
estavani  in  Mistral,  and  Zeitschrift,  XV,  539. 


522  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

c.  other  suffixes 

Other  suffixes  found  in  parasyntheta  are  -EJAR, 
-EGAR,  and  -EZIR. 

-EJAR 

Under  the  verbal  suffix  -EJAR,  several  words  of  this 
kind  are  found,  formed  both  on  nouns  and  on  adjectives. 
When  joined  to  adjectives,  -EJAR  generally  seems  to 
give  the  force  of  "to  become." 

Used  together  with  the  prefix  A-,  we  find : 

afeblejar  (se),  become  weak  feble,  weak 

asoplejar   (se),   bend,   incline  sople,  supple 

towards 

asordejar,^  become  deaf  sort,  deaf 

With  COM-: 

companejar,  prepare  or  eat  food        pan,  bread 

With  DES-: 

dezunejar,  disunite  un,  one 

With  EN-: 

enmalejar,  anger?  mal,  bad,  evil 

ensenhorejar,  become  mighty  senhor,  lord 

With  ES-: 
eshaudejar,]  rejoice  haut,  bold,  gay 

-EGAR 

-EGAR  also  is  found  in  three  words,  two  formed  on 
nouns  and  one  on  an  adjective. 

'  The  simple  verb  sordejar  also  exists  but  with  a  different  kind  of 
meaning. 


t  Another  verb  rather  obscure  in  formation  may  be  mentioned  here 
because  of  the  apparent  prefix  DE-.  This  is  denejar,  clean,  purify,  and 
its  form  seems  to  be  due  to  a  metathesis  in  nedejar.  In  this  case,  there 
is  no  prefix,  and,  consequently,  no  parasyntheton.  The  prefix  DE-  can 
be  part  of  the  word  only  if  we  suppose  some  shortening  to  have  taken 
place   in  a  verb   *denedejar.     For  nedejar,  see  p.  361. 


Formation  of  Verbs  523 

It  is  found  together  with  the  prefix  A-  in: 
afamegar,  starve  fam,  hunger  (noun) 

amolegar,  soften  mol{h),  soft  (adjective) 

With  the  prefix  DE- in: 

dementegar,  forget  7mn{t),mmd 

which  may  be  compared  with  the  parasynthetic  adjective 
esmentegat. 

-EZIR 

Under  the  suffix  -EZIR,  there  is  a  fairlj^  long  Ust  of 
parasyntheta,  formed,  with  very  few  exceptions,  on  adjec- 
tives,  and   mostly   intransitive. 

Derived  in  connection  \\dth  the  prefix  A-  we  find: 

ahonezir,  improve  hon,  good 

afranquezir,  free  franc,  free 

afrevolezir,^  weaken  frevol,  weak 

amolhezir,  soften  molh,  soft 

amortezir,^  deaden  mort,  dead 

In  connection  with  EM-  are  found: 

embelhezir,  beautify  bel{h),  beautiful 

eviblanquezir ,  whiten  hlanc,  white 

empalezir,  become  pale  pale,  pale 

With  EN- are: 

encarzezir,^  make  dear  car,  dear 

endurzezir,^  harden  dur,  hard 

enfadezir,  play  the  fool  fat,  fool,  foolish 

enfolezir,  drive  crazy  fol,  crazy,  foolish 

enfreulezir,  put  out  of  power  frevol,  weak 

engrandezir,  glorify  gran{t),  great 

engrogezir,  become  yellow  groc,  yellow 

enlagezir,  become  dirtj'  lag,  laid,  ugly 

1  Cf.  also  afrevolzir,  as  well  as  afrevolar  and  afrevolir. 

*  For  the  formation  on  a  past  participle,  cf.  also  tortezir  under  verbal 
suffixes,  p.  366. 

'  These  two  verbs  are  peculiar  in  form.  The  forms  carzir  and 
endurzir,  in  which  the  suffix  is  once  represented,  are  also  found.  It 
seems  just  possible  that  in  these  words  -ZIR  may  have  been  taken  for 
-IR  (i.e.,  carzir  for  cars  +-IR),  and  the  longer  -EZIR  substituted  for  it. 


524  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

enregezir,  stiffen  rege,  stiff 

enriquezir,  enrich  ric,  rich 

enrogezir,  redden  rog,  red 

enteunezir,  weaken  teune,  weak,  thin 

entristezir,  sadden  trist,  sad 

Formed  in  conjunction  with  ES-  we  find: 
esgaizir,  become  glad,  cheer  up         gai,  gay 

In  contrast  with  all  of  these  formations  on  adjectives, 
very  few  formations  are  made  on  other  words.  On 
nouns  we  find: 

With  EM-: 

empeirezir,  petrify  peira,  stone 

empolsezir,  soil,  darken  pols,  dust 

With  EN-: 

enfnguezir,  kindle  fuc,  fire 

There  are  also  words  apparently  formed  on  verb-stems : 

engemezir,'^  sigh  gemir,  groan,  lament 

entorsezir,  twist,  wrench  torser,  twist 

1  Ingemiscere  is  found  in  Lat. 


CHAPTER  II 

FORMATION  OF  NOUNS 

The  nouns  formed  by  the  simultaneous  addition  of 
suffix  and  prefix  to  some  simple  word  are  very  few  in 
number.  This  simple  word  may  be  either  a  noun  or  a 
verb-stem,  just  as  in  the  formation  of  verbal  parasyntheta 
it  might  be  either  noun  or  adjective.  Nouns  based  on 
adjectives  are,  however,  rare.  The  reasons  for  the  forma- 
tion of  nouns  of  this  class  are  the  same  as  those  which 
aid  in  bringing  about  the  formation  of  verbs — there  was  a 
real  need  for  them  in  the  language.  This  has  been  illus- 
trated in  the  case  of  the  verb  eslengar;  and  it  is  easy  to 
imagine  a  further  step  forward  by  which  eslengamen 
might  be  formed.  In  fact,  it  is  the  natural  thing  to  form 
abstracts  by  adding  the  suffix  -AMEN  to  the  stem  of 
verbs  in  -ar.  Eslengamen  in  this  case  would  of  course 
be  only  a  suffix-formation  on  eslengar;  but  such  words 
might  give  a  starting-point  for  the  formation  of  nominal 
parasyntheta,  for  lenga  instead  of  eslengar  might  be  under- 
stood as  the  base-word,  or,  to  take  an  actual  case,  setje 
instead  of  asetjar  might  be  supposed  to  be  the  base-word 
in  asetjamen.  Yet  the  proximity  of  the  verb  and  the 
regularity  with  which  -AMEN  had  come  to  be  added 
to  verb-stems  would  prevent  any  such  confusion  from 
becoming  great.  Formations  based  on  nouns  may  have 
come  about  as  described,  whereas  the  formations  on  verbs 
are  simpler,  being  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  verbal 
parasyntheta  studied  above.  That  is,  denombramen, 
bill,  is  formed  by  DE-+wo?n6r(rtr)-}— AMEN,  nomhrar 
being  the  base-word.  Denomhrar  is  not  found  and  may 
not  exist,  but  a  need  for  the  noun  was  felt,  and  it  was 

525 


526  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

probably  formed  on  the  analogy  of  verbs  beginning  with 
DE-  and  taking  the  suffix  -AMEN.  Here  again,  as  in 
other  eases,  the  abstract  denomhramen  may  be  a  suffix- 
formation  on  *denomhrar,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  assume 
the  existence  of  such  a  word.  Nominal  parasyntheta  as 
well  as  verbal  ones  could  be  formed  when  needed. 

The  use  of  -AMEN  with  a  kind  of  collective  force  has 
already  been  mentioned.  This  is  a  meaning  that  may 
have  developed  out  of  the  abstract  use,^  but  it  is  particu- 
larly common  in  the  parasyntheta  in  connection  with 
the  vague  prefix  EM-  (EN-).^ 

A.   FORMED  BY  THE  USE  OF  SUFFIXES  GENERALLY  ADDED 
TO  VERBS 

The  parasyntheta  formed  by  means  of  suffixes  regularly 
added  to  verbs  will  be  given  first.  The  suffixes  of  this 
kind  found  in  forming  nominal  parasyntheta  are  -ADA, 
-ADOR,  -AMEN,  and  -AT,  and,  in  single  examples, 
-ATGE  and  -AZON. 

-ADA  is  found  in: 

contraselada?  (for  contracelada  ?)        celar,  conceal  (  ?) 

feint  (  ?),  avoidance  ( ?) 

escambada^        )    ,  .  ,  ,      , 

stride  catnoa,  leg 


trascambada'^ 

-ADOR  is  found  in : 

escoltivador,^  cultivator  collivar,  cultivate 

pervalador,  ditch-digger  valat,  ditch 

1  See  the  other  abstract  suffixes,  sueh  as  -ATGE,  etc. 

2  Cf.  the  Engl,  word  "embankment." 

3  A  dancing  term?  (see  Flamenca,  line  1275). 

*  Cf.  the  Fr.  formation  with  EN-  (enjambee)  instead  of  ES-  or  TRAS-. 

s  EscoUivar  is  not  found,  but  its  existence  is  made  probable  by  the 
appearance  of  other  possible  derivatives,  as  escoltivamen  and  escoltivat. 
It  is  hardly  probable  that  so  many  parasynthetic  formations  would  be 
made  on  one  word. 


Formation  of  Nouns  527 

-AMEN  is  found  in: 

acujamen,^  idea  cujar,  believe 

decostamen,  defrayal  costar,  cost 

defasamen,  disfigurement  fasa,  face 

denombramen,  specification,  bill  nomhrar,  name 

desmemoriamen,  forgetting  memoria,  memory 
empoestamen,-  authority 

empontamen,  scaffold,  stage  pon(t),  bridge 

enartamen,^  dexterity  art,  art 

enfachamen,*  conceit,  whim  (  ?)  facha,  face 

ensolhamen,  foundations  of  sill  sol{h),  threshold 

entaulamen,  beams,  timberwork  taula,  table 

escoltivamen,^  cultivation  coltivar,  cultivate 

Also  apparently  formed  on  an  adjective: 

enviliamen,  cheapness  vil{h),  vile 

-AT  is  found  in : 

encrivelhat,  a  religious  sect  (  ?)  (crivelar,  sift  through  ?) 

ensabatat,  a  religious  sect  sabat,  shoe 

escodat,  stripped  skin  of  animal  coa,  tail 

esponhat,^  one-armed  man  ponh,  fist 

all  of  these  words  being  only  adjectives  used  substan- 
tively. Ensahatat  seems  to  be  a  variation  of  sahatat, 
but  formed  independently  on  sahat. 

_  1  As  cujamen  exists  also,  this  may  be  a  prefix-formation,  though  this 
kind  of  formation  is  unlikely. 

2  This  word  is  puzzling,  and  is  probably  not  a  parasyntheton  at  all. 
It  may  be  a  suffix-formation  on  empodestir,  put  in  possession,  with 
-AMEN  instead  of  -IMEN,  due  to  the  analogy  of  the  a  of  the  apparent 
suffix   in    empoestados,    empoestadit. 

'  Enartar  exists,  but  has  a  rather  different  meaning  from  that  seen 
in  the  noun. 

*  The  meaning  is  not  at  all  clear. 

5  For  the  formation,  see  the  note  on  escoliivador,  p.  526. 


t  For  all  of  the  words  in  -AT,  see  also  the  nominal  suffix  -AT. 
Another  word  in  -AT  is  arquidiquenat,  archdeaconry.  Diquenat  is  not 
found  in  Prov.,  but  undoubtedly  existed,  coming  from  the  Lat.  diaco- 
natus.  In  this  case,  arquidiquenat,  if  not  entirely  formed  in  Lat.,  might 
be  taken  as  a  kind  of  prefix-formation.  It  cannot,  of  course,  be  a  Prov. 
parasyntheton,  as  the  word  for  "deacon"  is  diacre. 


528  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

-ATGE  is  found  only  in: 
engrunatge,^  a  tax  on  beans  grim,  grain 

-AZON  (-IZON)  is  found  only  in: 
envenizonj^  coming  venir,  come 

B.       FORMED    BY    THE    USE    OF    SUFFIXES    GENERALLY 
ADDED    TO    NOUNS 

Next  conio  the  few  formations  by  means  of  suffixes 
generally  added  to  nouns,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  -lER.  In  these  words,  both  suffix  and  prefix  generally 
have  real  force. 

-lER  is  found  in: 
concalongier,  disputant  calonja,  slander 

escabesiera,  head  of  a  bed  cabes,  head  of  a  bed 

estesiier,  butcher  who  sells  heads       testa,  head 

-INA  is  found  in: 

aplevina,^  security,  pledge  plerir,  pledge 

-OL  is  found  in: 

arestol,*  rest  for  the  lance  resta,  rest,  fork 

-URA  is  found  in: 

tra{n)sluchura,  crevice  lutz,  light 

A  suffix  of  the  kind  regularly  added  to  adjectives, 
-EZA,  is  found  in  one  example: 

imperdnrableza  perdurable,  everlasting 

'  Engrunar  exists,  but  with  a  different  meaning.  Engrunatge  appears 
to  be  directly  formed  on  grun,  although  it  may  have  been  influenced  in  its 
form  by  the  verb.     The  simple  *grunatge  would  have  the  same  meaning. 

-  There  is  no  evidence  for  the  existence  of  envenir.  Envenizon  seems 
to  mean  "coming"  in  a  special  sense.  It  is  found  only  in  a  work  on  geo- 
mancy.     The  Lat.  invenire  seems  to  have  left  no  traces  in  Romance. 

A  general  observation  that  maj'  be  made  about  the  nominal  para- 
syntheta  as  yet  studied  is  that  suffixes  which  have  been  seen  to  be  added 
almost  exclusively  to  verbs  are  here  very  generally  added  to  nouns. 

3  This  word  may  not  exist.  One  of  the  naanuscripts  has  plevina, 
which  would  be  a  normal  formation  on  plevir. 

>  The  verbs  restar  and  arestar  both  are  found,  and  orestol  might  he 
a  formation  on  the  latter  except  for  the  fact  that  the  suffix  -OL  seems 
always  to  have  been  added  to  nouns.  For  a  description  of  the  arestol. 
see  Schultz,  Hofischc  Leben,  II,  24. 


CHAPTER  III 

FORMATION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

The  formation  of  adjectives  of  this  kind  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  nouns,  but  it  is  even  more  hmited  in  extent. 
Indeed,  the  only  certain  adjective  parasyntheta  are  formed 
by  means  of  the  participial  suffixes  -AT,  -IT,  and  -UT.^ 
The  way  these  formations  were  evolved  has  been  men- 
tioned in  dealing  with  the  adjective  suffix  -AT. 

I.      FORMATIONS    ON    VERB-STEMS 

The  list  of  parasyntheta  probably  formed  on  verb- 
stems  follows. 

Under  -AT,  there  are: 

de  (or  des)fortunat,^  unfortunate  fortunar  (fortuna),  make  happy 

derazonat,  unreasonable  razonar  {razon),  reason 

dezafiblat,  uncloaked  afiblar,  clasp,  wrap  up 

emparlat,  eloquent  parlar,  speak 

enfastigat,  satiated  fastigar  (fastic),  feel  disgust  for 

enfazendat,  busy,  occupied  fazendar,  make 

enmeravilhat,  astonished  meravilhar  {meravilha),  marvel 

ensagelat,  sealed  sagelar  (sagel),  seal 

prenomnat,  previously  mentioned  nomnar,  name 

sobr(e)amezurat    )  .  ,      ,  amezurar,  measure 

,      ,  y  immoderate  ,  ,  , 

sobredesmezurat     )  desmezurar,  go  beyond  measure 

1  There  are,  however,  a  few  words  ending  in  other  suffixes  that  should 
be  mentioned  here.  Benastruc  and  malastruc,  for  example,  are  listed 
by  Meyer-Liibke  under  the  parasyntheta.  They  are,  indeed,  formed  on 
astre,  star,  but  as  astruc  (and  its  derivative  astrugueza)  is  also  found,  they 
cannot  well  be  placed  here.  They  may  be  compared  with  the  Fr. 
bienheureux  and  malheureux,  which  are  certainly  not  parasyntheta. 
Both  Fr.  and  Prov.  forms  are  compound  words,  under  which  head  the 
Prov.  words  will  be  given.  Other  apparent  parasyntheta  are  subalbenc 
and  subfalbenc.  These  might  be  taken  to  be  formed  on  alb  and  falb, 
yet  both  falbenc  and  subfalb  are  found.  Subfalbenc  might,  therefore, 
be  taken  either  as  prefix-  or  suffix-formation.  Subalbenc  is  probably 
formed  on  the  analogy  of  subfalbenc.     See  pp.  309  and  488  above. 

2  Fortunat  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  although  similar  forms  are  in  most 
of  the  other  languages. 

529 


530  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

Under  -IT,  there  is  found: 

dezapedit,  abandoned  apedir,  long  for,  desire. 

(See  adjective  suflfix  -IT) 
oltrasalhit,  overweening  salhir,  dart  out 

And  under  -UT,  there  is: 

dezaperceubut,  unprepared  (  ?)  apercebre,  perceive 

II.       FORMATIONS    ON    NOUNS 

Next,    parasynthetic    adjectives    formed    directly   on 

nouns  are  seen.     The  nouns  that  existed  beside  nearly 

all  the  simple  verbs  given  in  the  list  above  may  be  the 

starting-point  for  this.     Such  adjectives  in  -AT  are: 

denofezat,^  unbelieving  /e,  faith 

desbrasat,  without  arms  bras,  arm 
embagat,  wearing  rings 

empaginat,-  dull,  surly  pagina,  page 

empebrat,  peppery  pebre,  pepper 

enaibat,^  deformed  aip,  good  quality 

enarnescat,  equipped  arnesc,  equipment 

encanonat,  reed-shaped  canon,  reed 
encarat  (preceded  by  mal)  =  with     cara,  face 

dark  face 
encopenat  or  entopinal .?,''  plumed  (  ?) 

•  A  peculiar  formation,  as  nofezat,  which  also  exists,  expresses  this 
idea  sufficiently  well,  in  addition  to  its  meaning  of  "disloyal."  The 
DE-  of  denofezat  appears  to  have  no  force,  therefore.  The  word  may 
have  been  formed,  however,  by  the  addition  of  -AT  to  the  phrase  de  no 
fe,  and  the  z  due  to  the  analogy  of  nofezat. 

2  A  queer  development  of  meaning.  The  form  seems  to  indicate 
the  mood  of  one  always  poring  over  the  pages  of  a  book. 

3  EN-  here  would  appear  to  be  the  negative  particle  sometimes  pre- 
fixed to  adjectives.  Aibat,  however,  does  not  appear  to  exist,  though 
aibit  is  found.     See  note  on  endechat  (p.  531,  below). 

*  If  the  word  in  question  is  entopinal,  it  would  seem  to  be  formed  on 
topina,  saucepan,  and,  indeed,  entoupina,  put  in  the  pot,  wrap  up,  etc., 
is  found  in  Mistral.  But  even  if  the  word  should  be  corrected  to  entopi- 
nat,  there  is  no  clear  connection  in  meaning  with  topina,  saucepan,  as  the 
meaning  "plumed"  seems  to  fit  the  passage  in  which  the  word  is  found. 
Could  not  the  root  be,  rather,  that  found  in  the  Fr.  toupet  (and  toupie  ?)  ? 
Possibly  there  may  have  existed  a  Prov.  *topin  with  the  meaning  of 
toupet,  or  "tuft."     The  word  is  very  obscure,  however. 


Formation  of  Adjectives  531 

endechat,^  full  of  good  qualities  decha,  fault 

endemoniat,  demoniacal  demoni,  demon 

enlatinat,  learned,  versed  in  Ian-  latin,  Latin 

guages 

ensolfrat,  sulphured  solfre,  sulphur 

ensucat,  wounded  in  the  head  sue,  head 

eniemorat,  god-fearing  iemor,  fear 

escuichat,  hipped,  hipshot  cuicha,  hip 

esdentat,  toothless  den{t),  tooth 

esfosat,    dug(?),    or    containing  fosa,  grave 

graves  ( ?) 

esfrontat,  bold,  daring  fron{t),  forehead 

espeitrinat,  with  bared  breast  peitriyia,  breast 

nofezat,  faithless  fe,  faith 

sobrestoriat,  f  overadorned,  over-  estoria,  history 

labored 

An  adjective  of  this  kind  ending  in  -IT  is: 
aterrit,  worn  out,  infirm  terra,  earth 

III.     IRREGULAR    ADJECTIVAL   PARASYNTHETA 

A  few  words  appear  to  be  of  even  more  complicated 
formation,  however.  These  appear  to  have,  besides  the 
prefix  and  suffix  such  as  are  seen  in  the  preceding  list 
joined  to  the  simple  noun,  another  syllable  interpolated 
between  this  noun  and  the  suffix.  Such  words  are 
esmentegat,  espezotat,  and  engratonat. 

Esmentegat,  crazy,  appears  to  be  the  past  participle  of 
a  verb    *esmentegar.     This   is   derived  by  SticheP  from 

1  Endechat  is  formed  in  the  same  way  as  enaibat,  in  which  the  EN- 
has  negative  force.  There  is  a  verb  dechar  which  seems  to  mean  "to 
sin,"  and  endechat  may  be  formed  of  EN-  and  dechat,  the  past  participle 
of  dechar.  Even  in  such  a  case,  however,  the  existence  of  the  noun  decha 
would  give  a  starting-point  for  the  formation  of  enaibat  on  a  noun. 

2  P.  52. 


t  Ajostat  probablj-  formed  on  josta,  near;  apoderat  probably  formed 
on  poder,  power;  descorat  probably  formed  on  cor,  heart;  and  encolpat 
probably  formed  on  colpa,  sin,  guilt,  should  be  mentioned  here  with 
the  parasyntheta,  although,  as  the  verb  with  the  prefix  exists,  they  have 
already    been    given   as   suffix-formations. 


532  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

EX-+menie+-ICARE  and  compared  with  the  Spanish 
mentecato.  This  etymology  seems  to  be  correct,  making 
the  word  a  parasyntheton  with  the  suffix  -ICARE. 
*Esmentegar  may  be  compared  with  dementegar,  forget, 
which  is  found. 

Espezotat,  with  broken  foot,  appears  to  be  the  same 
kind  of  formation,  although  the  source  of  the  -ot-  is  not 
entirely  clear.     Mistral  lists  a  word  espezouta. 

Engratonat,  wrinkled,  appears  to  be  formed  on  a 
noun  *graton  derived  from  the  verb  gratar,  scratch. 
Mistral  has  a  verb  gratouna,  scratch  slightly. 


PART  IV 
OTHER  METHODS  OF  WORD-FORMATION 


INTRODUCTORY 

WORDS  FORMED  WITHOUT  THE  USE  OF  SUFFIX 
OR  PREFIX 

As  a  convenient  as  well  as  logical  system  for  the  classi- 
fication of  the  different  kinds  of  word-formation  found, 
the  addition  of  suffix  or  prefix  has  been  adopted  and 
foUoAved  hitherto.  Words  have  been  regarded  as  formed 
by  the  addition  of  either  one  of  these,  or  of  both  of  them 
at  the  same  time,  and  classified  accordingl3^  It  is,  more- 
over, possible  to  continue  on  the  same  basis  by  styling  all 
the  other  ordinary  methods  of  word-formation  "Words 
formed  without  the  use  of  either  suffix  or  prefix." 

This  classification,  or  grouping-together  of  all  the  words 
formed  by  other  methods  than  the  addition  of  suffix  or 
prefix  contains  two  very  distinct  kinds  of  formations. 
There  are  the  words  formed  by  composition,  or  the  union 
of  two  individual  words,  to  be  treated  later,  and  there  is 
also  another  type  of  word,  peculiar  to  the  Romance 
languages  and  particularly  common  in  French  and  Pro- 
vencal, in  which  there  is  an  apparent  dropping  of  a  suffix. 
These  are  the  words  which  have  been  generally  known  as 
postverhal  nouns.  Here,  however,  they  will  be  given  the 
broader  title  of  "nouns  formed  from  verbs."  They  will 
be  treated  first. 


535 


CHAPTER  I 

NOUNS  FORMED  FROM  VERBS 

These  words,  generally  known  as  postverbal  nouns, 
as  stated  above,  are,  in  appearance,  never  anything  but 
the  stem  itself  of  the  verb  from  which  they  are  formed. 
There  has  been  some  discussion  of  this  class  of  words  and 
of  the  name  that  should  be  given  them,  Egger,  who  was 
one  of  the  first  to  treat  this  kind  of  nouns,  called  them 
nouns  formed  by  the  apocopation  of  the  infinitive,^  and 
Lene,  who  has  treated  the  formation  of  these  words  in 
French  more  recently,-  while  giving  the  words  their  usual 
name  of  postverbal  nouns,^  has  adopted  Egger's  view  of 
their  formation. 

However  w^ords  of  this  kind  may  have  come  to  be 
formed  in  French  or  in  Provengal,  their  origin  is  described 
by  Lene  in  what  he  calls  a  "proportional  formation." 
To  illustrate:  From  the  past  participle  cantiis  of  the 
ancient  verb  canere,  to  sing,  was  formed  the  frequentative 
verb  cantare.  Now  cantus,  like  many  other  past  parti- 
ciples, was  used  substantively,  meaning  "song,"  and  when 
canere  later  disappeared  and  cantare  persisted,^  the 
appearance  is  that  of  a  noun  formed  on  a  verb  by  dropping 
some  ending.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  appearance  of  the 
words  in  French  and  Provengal,  where  we  find  the  nouns 

'  "  Les  substantifs  verbaux  formes  par  apocope  de  Vinfinitif"  Rev.  I 
lang.  rom.,  VI,  333-60. 

2  Les  substantifs  postverbaux  dans  la  langue  frangaise,  Upsala,  1899. 

5  This  name  is  criticized  in  a  review  of  Lene's  work  by  Paris  in 
Romania,  XXIX,  440.  The  name  substantifs  deverbaux  is  there  sug- 
gested. 

■•  This  disappearance  of  the  simpler  form  is  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  of  word-formation  in  Vulgar  Lat.  and  in  Romance. 

536 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs  537 

chant  and  ca7i{t)  existing  beside  the  verbs  chanter  and 
cantar.  The  proportion  is  between  cantus,  denoting 
the  action  of  the  verb — and  cantare,  the  verb  itself. 
When  this  proportion  happened  to  become  frequent, 
as  it  did  in  later  Latin,  new  nouns  on  this  model 
were  formed,  and  as  the  original  method  of  formation 
had  been  forgotten,  they  were  formed  according  to 
appearances,  by  using  nothing  but  the  stem  of  the  verb. 
The  question  whether  it  is  the  stem  of  the  infinitive  or 
that  of  the  present  which  appears  in  these  words  has  been 
much  discussed.  For  Provengal,  it  is  the  infinitive 
stem  that  is  seen  in  every  word,  so  that  from  all  appear- 
ances these  words  might  easily  be  called  "substantives 
formed  by  apocopation  of  the  infinitive."  But  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  ending  of  any  particular  form  was 
ever  really  dropped.^ 

A.      POSTVERBAL   NOUNS 

There  are,  in  Provengal,  three  classes  of  postverbal 
nouns:  (1)  those  showing  only  the  stem  of  the  verb; 
(2)  those  ending  in  -e;  (3)  those  ending  in  -a.  The  second 
class  is  really  only  a  subdivision  of  the  first  one,  as  the 
-e  is  probably  never  anything  but  the  supporting  vowel 
after  a  difficult  combination  of  consonants.  The  case  is 
simpler,  therefore,  than  in  French,  where  -e  appears  as 
a  feminine  ending  as  well  as  a  supporting  vowel.  Aside 
from  the  forms  in  -e,  there  are,  then,  only  two  classes  of 
words:  the  mascuhne,  or  verb-stem  forms,  and  the 
feminine  forms  in  -a.-  A  very  large  proportion  of  the 
words  in  both  the  lists  is  abstract,  and  it  is  impossible 

1  Romania,  XXIX,  443. 

2  Names  of  male  persons  in  -a,  however  (as  gida  and  gacha),  are 
masculine. 


538 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


to  find  any  rule  for  their  choice  of  gender,  as  Lene  declares.^ 
In  the  Provencal  of  our  period,  there  was  apparently  a 
good  deal  of  hesitation  as  to  the  gender  of  these  words, 
since  for  the  same  word  there  is  frequently  a  form  in  -a 
and  a  form  without  it.-  The  masculines  are  more  numer- 
ous, however,  and  seem  to  have  been  the  original  form. 


VERB-STEM    FORMS 

First  will  be  given  the  masculine  or  verb-stem  forms. 
Of  these  the  list  is  rather  large. 

abric,  shelter,  refuge 

aclap,  piling  up,  pile 

acort,  peace,  union 

acus,  ground  for  complaint 

adop,  arrangement 

afan,  labor 

afic,  attachment,  effort 

agach,^  ambush,  trap 

agart,  waiting,  expectation 

agrat,  will,  wish 

air,*  anger 

ajost,  collection,  assembly 

amas,  pile,  heap 

apel,  appeal 

aprest,  preparation 


abricar,  shelter 

aclapar,  pile  up 

acordar,  agree 

acuzar,  accuse 

adobar,  equip 

afanar,  work 

a^cor(se),  support,  attach  oneself 

agachar,  watch 

agardar,  guard,  watch 

agradar,  please 

alrar,  irritate 

ajostar,  adjust 

amasar,  amass 

apelar,  call,  appeal 

aprestar,  prepare 


1  P.  43. 

2  Cf.  the  following  pairs  of  words: 


coman  and  comanda 
consult  and  consulta 
deman  and  dernanda 
demor  and  demora 
destric  and  destriga 
empach  and  empacha 
endres  and  endresa 


enquest  and  enquesta 
enten  and  ententa 
esclat  and  esclata 
esper  and  espera 
estors  and  estorsa 
jur  and  jura 
soan  and  soana 


In  Fr.,  in  almost  all  of  the  cases  in  which  one  of  these  words  or  of 
any  other  pair  has  persisted  to  the  present,  it  is  under  the  feminine  form. 
These  probably  became  popular  later  than  the  period  studied  here 
through  their  closer  resemblance  to  the  verb-stem. 

'  The  word  has  also  personal  force,  meaning  "a  watchman." 

<See  also  azir,  below,  another  form  of  the  word. 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs 


539 


aquit,^  acquisition,  purchase 
arap,  tearing 
arazon,  reason 
arest,  arrest,  stop 
asolt,  forgiveness,  gift 
alur,  application 
auforc,  permission 
autrei,  permission 
azir,  anger,  hate 
hlastim,  blame 
hurc,  push 
caquet,  chatter 
castei,  remonstrance 
clam,  complaint 
coman{t),  command 
compas,  compass,  measure 
comport,  conduct 
concort,  unanimity 
confort,  comfort 
conjur,  supplication 
conort,  encouragement 
consir,  chagrin,  care 
consult,  consultation 
contest,  reply,  objection 
contrapes,^  counterweight 
contrast,  contrast 
creban{t),  shock 
crit,  cry 

cug  (cuit),  thought 
debais,  decay,  ruin 
declin,  decline 
defit,  challenge 
delech,  delight 
deman{t),  demand 
demor,  dwelling 
denec,  denial 
deport,  amusement 
deroc,  mischance,  trouble 
descan{t),  mocking  song 
descarc,  discharge,  release 


aquitar,  acquit,  pay  off 
arapar,  snatch  away 
arazonar,  demand,  require 
arestar,  arrest,  stop 
asoltar,  give  over 
aturar,  fix 
au.orgar,  grant 
autrejar,  grant 
azirar,  anger 
blastimar,  blame 
hurcar,  push 
caquetar,  chatter 

castejar  (-igar),  warn 
clamar,  complain 
comandar,  command 

compasar,  measure 

comportar,  behave 

concordar,  agree 

confortar,  comfort 

conjurar,  implore;  conspire 

conortar,  encourage 

consirar,  seek,  long  for 

consuUar,  consult 

contestar,  reply 

contrapezar,  counterbalance 

contrastar,  resist 

crebantar,  overwhelm 

cridar,  cry 

cujar  (-cuidar),  think 

debaisar,  debase 

declinar,  decline 

defidar,  challenge 

delechar,  delight 

demandar,  demand 

demorar,  dwell,  remain 

denegar,  deny 

deportar,  amuse 

derocar,  upset 

descantar,  ridicule 

descargar,  discharge 


'  Also  found  in  the  phrase  d'un  aquit  with  adjective  force,  meaning 
"similar."  =  See  also  p.  468. 


540 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


desconorl,^  name  of  kind  of  poetry 

descort,  discord 

descug,  negligence 

desdenh,  disdain 

desfis,  challenge 

desgrat,-  ill-will 

deslaus,  blame 

deslei,  wrong 

desmaii{t),  counter-order 

despeiis,  expense 

desprezi,  scorn 

dessenh,  unreasonableness 

destric,  embarrassment 

devetz,  forbiddance 

devis,  discourse 

dezir,^  desire 

domnei,  courtesy 

egot,  gutter 

eisec,  equal  division  (of  cattle) 

emharc,  obstacle 

empach,  prevention 

empelt  {empeut),  graft 

encaus,  pursuit 

endres,  leading,  guidance 

enforc,*  crossways 

enget,  assignment 

englut,  paste,  coating 

ensert,  tree  newly  grafted 

entalh,  notch,  gash 

entreforc,^  crossroad 

entrepaus,  joining,  insertion 

enueg,^  annoyance 

envit,^  invitation 

escamp  (d'abelhas),  beehive 
esclat,  heavy  fall;  uproar 

1  This  is  the  probable  formation,  but  as  conort  exists,  it  would  be 
possible  to  see  in  the  word  a  prefix-formation. 

2  See  prefix-formation,  p.  470. 

s  For  a  discussion  of  this  word,  see  Lene,  78. 

*  Or  a  possible  prefix-formation  in  EN-  as  given  on  p.  472,  above. 

s  See  also  nominal  prefixes,  p.  473,  above. 

«  Sec  Lene,  81-82. 


desconorlar,  trouble 

descordar,  disagree 

descujar  {-cuidar),  be  careless 

desdenhar,  disdain 

desfizar,  challenge 

degradar  or  desgradar 

deslauzar,  disapprove 

desleiar(se),  neglect  one's  duty 

desmandar,  countermand 

despensar,  spend 

despreziar,  depreciate 

dessenar,  drive  crazy 

destrigar,  delay 

devedar,  forbid 

devizar,  tell,  relate 

dezirar,  desire 

domnejar,  court 

egotar,  drain 

eisegar,  arrange,  order 

embargar,  embarrass 

empachar,  prevent 

empellar,  graft 

encausar,  drive  away 

endresar,  set  up 

cnforcar,  become  forked 

engetar,  assign 

engludar,  glue 

ensertar,  graft 

entalhar,  notch 

entreforcar,  interfork 

entrepauzar,  join,  insert 

enojar,  annoy 

envidar,  invite 

(    away 
escampar,  pour  - 

/   out 

esclatar,  burst  forth 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs 


541 


escolt,  hiding-place  for  listening 

esgar,  esgart,  look 

esglai,  terror 

esgot,  drainage,  flowing  off 

eslais,  start,  outburst 

eslei,  justification 

esmai,  trouble,  emotion 

esparpalh,  scattering,  dispersal 

espaut,  failing,  fault 

espaven,  terror 

esper,  hope 

espurc,  rubbish,  sweepings? 

esvelh  (in  estar  en  e.,  pay  attention) 

evoc,^  revocation 

fastic,  disgust 

favel,  talk 

fomen{t),  nourishment 

foragiet,  advancement 

frois,  rumpling,  bruising 

gach,  watch 

gaimen(t),  groaning 

galop,  galop 

gap,  mocking,  joke 

gazanh,  gain 

govern,  guidance,  government 

gragel,  noise,  uproar 

grazilh,  tickling 

graus,  complaint  ? 

grondilh,  murmur 

guinh,  leer,  peep 

guit,'^  guide 

jangluelh,  slander 

jur,  oath 

malavech,  illness;  hardship 

man,  order 

manleu,^  borrowing 


escoltar,  listen 
esgarar,  esgardar,  look  at 
esglaiar,  terrify 
esgotar,  drain 
eslaisar,  dart  forth 
esleiar,  justify,  clear 
esmaiar,  trouble,  disturb 
esparpalhar,  scatter  about 
espautar,  trouble 
espaventar,  terrify 
esperar,  hope 
espurgar,  purge 
esvelhar  (se),  awake 

fastigar,  feel  disgust  for 
favelar,  talk 
fomentar,  foment,  excite 
foragitar,  throw  forth 
froisar,  bruise,  rumple 
gachar,  watch 
gaimentar,  lament 
galopar,  galop 
gabar,  mock 
gazanhar,  gain 
governar,  govern 
gragelar,  murmur 
grazilhar,  tickle 
graiizar,  complain 
grondilhar,  murmur 
giiinhar,  peep 
guidar,  guide 
janglolhar,  slander 
jurar,  swear 
malavejar,  be  ill 
mandar,  order 
manlevar,  borrow 


'  Evocar  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  although  it  undoubtedly  existed, 
coming  from  a  Lat.  evocare.  Evoc  has  the  meaning  that  *revoc  (which 
would  be  derived  from  revocare)  would  be  expected  to  have.  Thus  there 
is  confusion  between  the  two  sets  of  words.  Evocar  disappeared  and  evoc 
acquired  the  idea  seen  in  the  longer  verb.     *Kevoc  n  ay  not  have  existed. 

2  One  of  the  very  few  formations  of  this  kind  denoting  a  person. 

s  See  note  at  the  end  of  the  list  of  words  ending  in  -a,  p.  548. 


542 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


mescap,  mischief,  harm 

mespec,  negligence 

mespretz,  scorn 

tiec,  denial,  refusal 

ohlic,  pledging,  pawning 

ohlit,  forgetfulness 

pantain,  exhaustion 

percas,  percatz,  striving 

perfors,  striving 

permut,  exchange 

perpar,  offer,  presentation 

per  port,  behavior 

pertus,  hole 

pesi,  breaking?  {pesi     de     na 

shipwreck) 
plor,  tear 
port,  bearing 

prepaus,  resolution,  design 
prest,  loan 
prezic,  preaching 
quil,  piercing  cry 
reclam,  claim,  demand 
relais,  relaxation 
renom,^  renown 
renon,  usury 
repropch,  reproach 
retalh,  cutting 
revelh,  awakening 
rozilh,  rust,  rusting 
soan,  scorn 
talk,  cutting 
last,  trace 
toe,  touch 
torn,  turn 
tornei,  tourney 
trebol,^  trouble 
tremol,  trembling 

1  Not  a  certain  postverbal  formation,  although  the  Fr.  renom,  is 
classed  as  such  by  Lene  (p.  92).  For  the  Prov.  renom,  as  well  as  for  the 
derived  renomada,  we  should  expect  an  infinitive  *renomar  instead  of 
renomnar .  The  Prov.  words,  may,  however,  have  been  influenced  by  the 
Fr.  renom  and  renomme.     See  renomada,  under  -ADA,  p.  27. 

=  Cf.  Fr.  trouble,  Len6,  97. 


mescabar,  lack 
mespecar,  be  negligent 
mesprezar,  scorn,  despise 
negar,  deny 
obligar,  pledge,  pawn 
oblidar,  forget 
pantaisar,  swoon 
percasar,  strive 
perforsar,  strive 
permudar,  exchange 
perparar,  offer,  present 
perportar  (se),  behave 
pertusar,  pierce 
pesiar,  break  to  pieces 

plorar,  weep 
portar,  bear 
prepauzar,  resolve 
prestar,  lend 
prezicar,  preach 
quilar,  shriek 
reclamar,  claim 
relaisar,  relax 
renomnar,  name  again 
renovar,  renew 
repropchar,  reproach 
retalhar,  cut 
revelhar,  awake 
rozilhar,  rust 
soanar,  disdain 
talhar,  cut,  trim 
tnstar,  try,  touch 
tocar,  touch 
iornar,  turn 
tornejar,  turn  about 
trebolar,  trouble 
tremolar,  tremble 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs  543 

trep,  dance  trepar,  stamp 

trie,  trickery  tricar,  trick,  cheat 

iron,  thunder  tronar,  thunder 

trot,  trot  trotar,  trot 

vet,  forbiddance  vedar,  forbid 

vol,  flight  volar,  fly 

Formations  of  this  kind  among  verbs  ending  in  -er 
are  as  follows : 

captenh,^  conduct  captener(se),  behave 

complanh,  complaint  complanher,  complain 

descreis,  decrease  descreiser,  decrease 

estors,  distortion,  dislocation  estorser,  twist 

jatz,^  lodging  jazer,  lie 

mantenh,^  maintenance  mantener,  maintain 
resort,^  spring 

tenh,  tint  tenher,  dye,  tint 

val,  value    .  valer,  be  worth 

vol,  wish  voler,  wish 

Several  nouns  drawn  from  verbs  in  -re  are  also  found: 

aten(t),  waiting  atendre,  wait 

destolh,  detour  destolre,  take  off 

,         ,         .  enderdre  ) 

enders,  elevation  ,  ,-  raise 

enderzer  ) 

en<en(0,  waiting,^  intention,  design    entendre,  hear,  intend 

esbat,  play,  sport  esbatre,  rejoice;  take  pains  (?) 

There  are  also  many  nouns  drawn  from  the  conjuga- 
tion in  -ir: 

crois,  crackling  croisir,  crush,  crackle 

defuch,  see  defucha 

depart,  departure  departir,  depart 

1  See  note  at  the  end  of  the  lists  of  the  words  ending  in  -a,  p.  548. 

*  See  note  at  the  end  of  the  Usts  of  verb-stem  formations. 

3  The  only  verb  found  is  resorzer  from  resurgere.  The  simple  verb 
sortir  exists,  however,  and  resortir  may  possibly  be  assumed,  giving  the 
postverbal  noun  resort  just  as  in  Fr.  ressort.  The  Prov.  word,  as  well  as 
the  Fr.  one,  has  also  the  legal  meaning  of  "jurisdiction." 

*  Enten  seems  to  have,  therefore,  in  one  example  the  meaning  of 
aten. 


5-44  Word-Formation  in  Proven5AL 

escarn,  mockery,  derision  escarnir,  mock 

escop,  spittle  escopir,  spit 

escrois,  thunderclap  escroisir,  crack,  crush 

glat,  yellinti  (jl<i(ir,  yell 

gronh,  growlinji;  snout  gronhir,  growl 

reten{t),  tinkling  retentir,  resound 

Note. — In  the  above  lists,  although  the  greater  part  of  the 
words  is  purely  abstract,  many  of  them  tend  toward  concrete 
force,  especially  with  the  meaning  of  something  made  or  formed  by 
the  action  of  the  verb.'  From  this  meaning  may  have  been  developed 
the  idea  of  place  seen  in  some  words,^  and  a  kind  of  collective  force 
seen  in  others.'  Instrumental  force  is  seen  in  some  words,^  and  the 
idea  of  the  agent  in  a  very  few  others.^ 

FOKMS    ENDING    IN   -6 

Besides  all  those  words  which  are  in  form  purely  and 
simply  the  stems  of  verbs,  there  are  the  words  ending  in 
-e  and  the  ones  ending  in  -a.  Of  the  former  there  are  not 
many  examples,  and  in  all  of  them  except  esclaire  and 
repaire,^  the  -e  may  be  explained  as  the  vowel  of  sup- 
port for  the  combination  of  consonants  which  precedes 
it.     The  list  follows  i^ 

atempre,  proportion,  moderation       atemprar,  moderate 
camje,  change  camjar,  change 

1  For  example,  descan,  desconort,  embarc,  encastre  (sec  following  list), 
enforc,  ensert,  entreforc,  pertus,  trauc. 

-  As  repaire,  from  such  a  starting-point  as  found  in  enforc  and  entre- 
forc. 

5  Such  as  escombre  (see  following  list)  and  espurc. 
*  Escop  and  gronh. 

5  As  in  guit.     Escamp  is  hard  to  classify. 

6  The  -e  in  these  two  words  is  rather  more  difficult  to  explain.  It 
may  have  been  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Fr.  forms  iclaire  (existing 
beside  eclair)  and  repaire.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  -air  never 
stands  at  the  end  of  words  in  Prov.  We  find,  for  example,  doaire  and 
eiviaire,  in  which  the  -aire  comes  from  -ARIUM.  It  may,  therefore, 
be  unnecessary  to  assume  Fr.  influence. 

'  For  enclaustre,  a  possible  postverbal  formation  on  enclaustrar, 
see  the  nominal  prefix  EN-,  p.  471. 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs 


545 


caple,^  blow 
dopte,  doubt 

encastre,  window-frame;  pyx 
encombre,  hindrance,  obstacle 
encontre,  encounter 
esclaire,  brightening 
escombre,  cleanings,  rubbish 
escomenge,  excommunication 
mescomte,  miscount,  mistake 
repaire,  abode 
setge,  seat 
tempre,  tempering 


caplar,  cut  into,  strike 
doptar,  doubt 
encastrar,  inlay 
encombrar,  hinder,  encumber 
encontrar,  encounter 
esclairar,  brighten 
escomhrar,  clean 
escomenjar,  excommunicate 
mescomtar,  miscount 
repairar,  return,  repair 
setjar,  seat 
temprar,  temper 


There  is  only  one  word  formed  on  a  verb  not  ending  in 
-ar.     This  is: 


murtre,   murder 


murtrir,  murder 


FORMS   ENDING   IN   -a 

Next  should  come  the  words  ending  in  -a.  These,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  ending,  are  feminine.-  In 
many  cases,  which  will  be  given  below,  both  a  mascu- 
line (or  verb-stem  form)  and  a  feminine  form  in  -a 
exist.  The  list  of  words  in  -a  follows,  the  words  formed 
from  verbs  in  -ar  coming  first. 

acensa,  assessment  acensar  (acesar),  assess 

ajuda,  aid  ajudar,  aid,  help 

arqueja,  arrow  cirquejar,  bend  like  a  bow  (also 

shoot  [with  bow^?]) 

ataina,  care,  trouble  atainar  (se),  trouble  oneself 

comanda,  command  comandar,  command 

compra,  purchase  comprnr,  buy 

1  Levy  gives  chaple,  but  caple  seems  more  in  accordance  with  the 
spelling  adopted  both  here  and  in  his  dictionary.  There  is  also  another 
word,  caplei,  having  real  abstract  force,  meaning  "a  cutting  down,"  or 
"slaughter."  It  is  evidently  connected  in  some  way  with  caplar,  but 
the  ending  -ei  is  not  thoroughly  clear.  It  seems  as  though  *caplejar 
must  have  existed,  possibly  formed  by  the  analogy  of  castejar  (<castigare). 
Caplei  would  then  be  an  ordinarily  formed  postverbal  noun. 

2  Except  the  words  denoting  male  persons. 

3  Cf.  O.  Fr.  archoiier  as  given  in  Levy  I,  85. 


546 


Word-Formation  in  Provencal 


consulta,  advice 

demanda,  demand 

demora,  dwelling 

desferra,  remains 

desmezura,  excess 

destriga,  hindrance 

disputa,  dispute 

embosca,  ambush 

empacha,  prevention 

empensa,  undertaking,  design 

encorsa,    incurrence    of    penalty, 

confiscation 
emplega,  purchase 
endresa,  guidance 
endura,  suffering 
engana,  deceit 
enterva,  question 
enversa,  deceit,  fraud 
esclata,  lineage 
escolta,  place  for  listening 
espaventa,  scarecrow 
espera,  waiting 
espia,  spy 
esproa,  test,  proof 
estima,  estimation 
exonia,  exoneration 
gacha,  sentinel 
gauja,  gauge 
gratuza,  grater 
grauza,  dispute,  controversy 
guida,  guide 
jangla,  slander 
josta,  joust,  tourney 
jura,  oath 
laisa,  testament 
lanha,  groan 
mescla,  mixture 
inostra,  sign,  proof,  play 
muda,   change,   retreat;  space  of 

time 
muza,  vain  waiting 
paga,  pay 
peca,  fault,  sin 


consultar,  advise 

demandar,  ask,  demand 

demorar,  dwell 

desferrar,  take  iron  off 

desmezurar,  go  to  excess 

destrigar,  hinder 

disputar,  dispute 

emboscar,  put  in  ambush 

empachar,  prevent 

empensar,  plan 

encorsar,  confiscate,  sequestrate 

emplegar,  purchase 

endresar,  straighten,  set  right 

endurar,  endure 

enganar,  deceive 

entervar,  question 

enversar,  turn  around,  over 

esclatar,  burst  forth 

escoltar,  listen 

espaventar,  terrify 

esperar,  wait,  hope 

espiar,  spy  out 

esproar,  prove,  test 

esiimar,  estimate 

exoniar,  exonerate 

gachar,  watch 

gaujar,  gauge 

gratuzar,  scratch,  scrape 

grauzar,  complain 

guidar,  guide 

janglar,  rail  at,  mock 

jostar,  joust 

jurar,  swear 

laisar,  leave 

lanhar,  groan 

mesclar,  mix 

mostrar,  show,  display 

mudar,  change 

muzar,  loiter,  dawdle 
pagar,  pay 
pecar,  sin 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs  -    547 

permula,  exchange  permutar,  exchange 

pesca,  fishing  pescar,  fish 

protesta,  protest  protestar,  protest 

soana,  repulse,  rejection  soanar,  disdain 

sobra,  excess,  remainder  sobrar,  exceed 

taina,  delay  tainar,  defer 

talha,  cutting  tnlhar,  cut 

toca,  touch  tocar,  touch 

torna,  return  tornar,  turn 

trastomba,  gymnastic  art  trastomhar,  fall,  tumble;  upset 

tresca,  dance  trescar,  dance 

tria,  sorting  tria,  sort 

uca,  crier  ucar,  cry,  call 

veda'\,  forbiddance  vedar,  forbid 

Among  the  words  in  -a,  as  well  as  among  those  formed 

of  verb-stems  alone,  there  are  a  few  formations  on  verbs 

other  than  those  in  -ar.     Those   formed  on  verbs  in  -er 

are  as  follows: 

estorsa,  tearing  away  estorser,  twist,  tear  away 

seza,  seat  sezer,  seat,  sit 

Those  formed  on  verbs  in  -re  are: 

carvenda,^  high  price  carvendre,  sell  dearly 

descenda,  humiliation  descendre,  lower 

esperda,  loss  esperdre,  lose  completely 

venda,  sale  vendre  sell 

And  on  verbs  in  -ir,  there  are: 

defalha,  default  defalhir,  fail,  be  missing 

deviza,  division  devizir,  divide 

1  See  note  at  the  end  of  the  lists  of  words  ending  in  -a,  p.  548. 


t  Another  word  resembling  a  postverbal  is  amola,  a  small  bottle, 
but  it  seems  impossible  to  connect  it  with  atnolar,  sharpen,  formed  on 
mola,  millstone. 

It  will  be  observed  that  not  all  of  these  words  are  pure  abstracts, 
and  that  many  of  the  non-abstract  words  denote  the  instrument  with 
which  the  action  was  performed.  Words  of  this  kind  are  arqueja,  espa- 
venta,  gauja,  gratuza,  laisa,  and  seza.  Other  words  denote  persons — 
the  agent  of  an  action.  Such  words  are  crida,  espia,  gacha,  guida,  and 
uca,  three  of  which  are  of  Germ,  origin.  The  only  word  denoting  place 
is  escolta,  for  which  cf.  the  Fr.  ecoute,  which  has  not,  however,  the  same 
meaning.     See  Lene,  pp.  28,  33,  and  115. 


548    •  Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 

esquerna,  mockery  esquernir,  mock 

falha,  fault  falhir,  fail 

ofra,  t  offer  ofrir,  offer 

Note. — The  words  captenh,  carvenda,  manleu,  and  mantenh 
have  been  listed  in  their  proper  places  above.  Such  words  are 
postverbal  nouns  formed  from  compound  verbs. 

B.     VERB-FORMS    USED    AS    NOUNS 

Under  the  general  heading  of  nouns  formed  from  verbs, 
the  use  as  nouns  of  certain  forms  of  the  verb  with  no 
change  in  form  may  be  included.  The  verb-forms  used 
in  this  way  are  the  infinitive,  the  present  participle,  and 
the  past  participle. 

Infinitives  in  -ar  and  -er  are  found  used  as  nouns. 

Those  in  -ar  are: 

cantar,  song 
felenar,  anger 
gostar,  lunch 

Those  in  -er  are: 

maner,  manor 
plazer,  pleasure 
poder,  power 
saber,  knowledge 
voler,  desire  ft 

The  present  participles  of  the  verbs  ending  in  -ar  and 

-er  are  also  used  as  nouns. 

Present  participles  of  verbs  in  -ar  are  seen  in : 

auzulan,^  flatterer 

demoran,  remainder  demorar,  remain 

'  Auzular  is  not  found,  but  undoubtedly  existed.  Another  forma- 
tion on  this  same  hypothetical  verb  is  auzulador,  given  under  the  suffix 
-ADOR.  *Auzular  would  come  from  the  Lat.  adulare,  though  *azular 
would  be  the  regular  form  coming  from  this  verb. 


t  Another  word  that  resembles  a  postverbal  noun  derived  from  a 
verb  in  ir-  is  defucha,  flight,  evasion,  but  it  is  probably  formed  by  the 
analogy  of  conducha,  a  past  participle  used  as  a  noun.  This  use  is  common 
and  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  postverbal  formation. 
For  this  and  other  examples  of  past  participles  used  as  nouns,  see  p.  549. 

tt  AH  of  these  words  have  the  same  use  in  Fr. 


Nouns  Formed  from  Verbs  549 

levan,  rise;  East^  levar,  raise 

marejan,  sailor  marejar,  sail 

montan,  increase  montar,  mount 

parlan,  place  for  speaking  parlar,  speak 

pezan,  weight  pezar,  weigh 

poblan,  inhabitant  poHar,  inhabit 

Present  participles  of  verbs  in  -er  are  seen  in : 

fenhen,  idler  fenher,  feign,  pretend 

jazen,  woman  in  childbed  jazer,  lie 

manan,^  inhabitant  tnaner,  stay,  remain 

ponen,  West^  poner,  put,  set 

The  use  of  the  past  participle  as  a  noun  is  much  more 
usual  than  that  of  either  infinitive  or  present  participle. 

Nouns  having  the  usual  endings  for  this  form at,  -it, 

and  -ut — have,  however,  already  been  treated  under  the 

suffix  -AT.3     There  are,   nevertheless,   a  few  examples 

of  irregular  past  participles  used  as  nouns  which  should 

be  mentioned  here.     Such  are: 

bendich,  fine  speech,  eulogy  bendir,  praise,  bless 

conducha,  conduct  conduire,  conduct 

confich,  preserve  confire,  preserve 

defacha,  flight;  subterfuge  defaire,  undo,  ruin 

defrach,  di\'ision  (of  property)  defranher,  break,  lack 

defucha,  subterfuge  defugir,  flee 

destorta,  wrong,  error,   perversity     destorser,  untwist,  turn  aside 

endich,  tax,  duty  endire,  impose 

enduch,  plastering,  coating  enduire,  coat,  cover  over 

entrach*  sticking-plaster 

opresa,  oppression  opremir,  oppress 

pro/es,  one  who  has  made  a  profession  proferre,  proffer,  pronounce 

promesa,t  promise  pro me/re,  promise 

iThe  meanings  of  levari  and  poncn  are  due  to  their  use  in  the  phrases 
sol  levan  and  sol  ponen. 

2  Manan  instead  of  manen  appears  to  indicate  Fr.  influence.     (  f. 
the    Fr.    manant. 

=Part  I,  chap,  i,  p.  149,  above. 

<  No  Prov.   verb  is  found,   and   the   word   probably   comes   from    a 
Lat.  intractus  from  intrahere. 


t  Many  of  the  words  in  this  list  come  from  Lat.  past  participles, 
some  of  which  were  already  used  as  nouns.  In  this  kind  of  formation, 
Prov.  has  little  that  is  new. 


CHAPTER  II 

COMPOUND  WORDS 

The  last  of  the  regular  methods  of  word-formation  to 
be  treated  is  that  of  composition.  All  of  the  methods 
thus  far  described  may  be  classed  under  the  general  head- 
ing of  derivation,  for  hitherto  the  suffix  and  the  prefix 
have  been  the  distinguishing  marks  in  the  formation  of 
words,  which  have  been  shown  to  be  formed  by  the  addi- 
tion— or,  as  in  the  case  of  postverbals,  the  removal — of 
one  or  both  of  fhem.  In  the  case  of  composition,  how- 
ever, there  is  neither  suffix  nor  prefix  to  consider:  the 
component  parts  are  individual  words,  recognized  as 
such,  and  welded  together  by  different  processes,  which 
will  form  the  subject-matter  of  this  chapter. 

An  exhaustive  study  of  composition  in  French  has  been 
made  by  Darmesteter,  who  divides  his  compounds  of 
French  origin  into  three  main  divisions  which  he  calls 
"juxtaposition,"  "composition  by  particles,"  and  "com- 
position proper,"  each  of  which  main  headings  has  its 
particular  subdivisions.  Darmesteter's  scheme  cannot  be 
followed  closely  here,  however,  since  his  second  division — 
the  composition  by  particles — has  already  been  fully 
treated  under  the  title  of  prefix-formation.  If  composi- 
tion be  the  formation  of  words  from  two  or  more  other 
words  recognized  as  such,  this  process  does  not  belong 
here,  but  is,  instead,  rather  one  of  derivation.  There 
remain,  then,  the  other  two  processes  called  by  Darme- 
steter "juxtaposition"  and  "composition  proper."  The 
difference  between  these  two  processes  is  explained  by 
Darmesteter  in  his  introduction.  The  essential  feature 
of  a  compound  word,  according  to  him,  is  ellipsis.     In  the 

550 


Compound  Words  551 

French  timbre-poste  or  the  Provengal  aiganeu,  some  prepo- 
sition, probably  de,  although  not  expressed,  is  to  be  under- 
stood. This  is  the  simplest  case;  in  other  true  compounds 
the  ellipsis  is  not,  perhaps,  so  obvious,  but  it  is  present  in 
every  case  in  one  form  or  another.  Words  formed  by 
juxtaposition,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  no  ellipsis. 
They  are  formed  of  an  adjective  and  a  noun  used  together, 
which,  through  constant  association,  have  become  one 
word.  The  adjective  consequently  agrees  with  the  noun, 
and  this  agreement  sometimes  is  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  juxtaposed  words  as  opposed  to  the  compound  proper. 
Darmesteter  divides  his  chapter  on  juxtaposition  into 
several  sections,  as  "Formations  by  Co-ordination," 
"Formations  by  Subordination,"  etc.,  but  for  Provencal 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  make  any  such  subdivisions. 
In  the  Provengal  formations  by  juxtaposition,  practically 
all  the  nouns,  which,  of  all  the  parts  of  speech  treated, 
have  the  most  complicated  methods  of  formation,  are  of 
the  adjective-noun  or  the  noun-adjective  type  above 
mentioned;  and  the  type  of  which  chef-d'oeuvre  is  an 
example  for  French,  the  type  with  the  preposition  appear- 
ing in  the  compound,  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  Provengal. 
In  the  cases  in  which  there  is  a  subordination  of  one  noun 
to  another,  the  preposition  is  only  understood  and  not 
expressed,  wherefore  there  is  an  ellipsis,  and  the  word 
would  be  classed  by  Darmesteter  as  a  compound  proper. 
What  Darmesteter  cahs  "composition  by  synecdoche" 
can  be  found  at  most,  also,  in  a  very  few  words.  It  is 
clear,  therefore,  that  the  words  formed  by  juxtaposition, 
being  all  of  one  type,  can  best  be  treated  together  as  one 
section  under  the  general  heading  of  compound  words. 
In  the  case  of  nouns,  which,  as  has  been  said,  are  the  most 
complex  of  the  parts  of  speech  treated,  juxtaposed  words 


552  Word-Formation  in  Proven(,'al 

are  simply  those  formed  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective, 
(or  adverb)  as  opposed  to  two  different  eases  in  which  the 
component  parts  are  two  nouns,  and  one  in  which  they 
are  a  verb  and  a  noun. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  the  main  divisions  of  "juxta- 
position," "composition  by.  particles,"  and  "composition 
proper,"  in  accordance  with  the  plan  pursued  throughout 
this  work  the  principal  divisions  will  be  made  according 
to  the  kind  of  word  formed,  and  will  consequently  be: 
"Nouns,"  "Adjectives,"  and  "Verbs."  Under  these 
headings,  the  different  methods  of  formation  will  be 
studied  independently  for  each  part  of  speech. 

A.    nouns 

I.    FORMED    OF   AN   ADJECTIVE    AND   A   NOUN 

The  first  case  to  be  treated  is  that  of  the  noun  formed  of 
an  adjective  and  a  noun,  which,  as  has  already  been  stated, 
is  the  type  of  the  formations  by  juxtaposition,  and  is 
probably  the  only  example  of  this  process  in  Provengal. 
The  question  as  to  which  of  the  two  parts  of  the  compound 
precedes  the  other  is  a  delicate  one,  and  seems  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  whole  subject  of  the  position  of  adjectives. 
This  is  a  rather  broad  subject,  as  there  are  so  many  things 
which  may  influence  an  adjective's  position,  such  as  con- 
siderations of  style,  emphasis,  etc.  Nevertheless,  the 
modern  Romance  languages  are  similar  enough  in  regard 
to  position  to  show  certain  underlying  principles  which 
must  have  prevailed  in  the  earliest  times.  Certain  adjec- 
tives, as  those  for  "good,"  "bad,"  "saint,"  or  "holy," 
and  numerals  regularly  precede  their  nouns,  and  other 
adjectives,  as  for  example  the  one  for  "new"  (Latin  novus), 
depend  on  their  precise  meaning  for  their  position  in 
respect  to  the  nouns  they  modify.     The  evidence  of  the 


Compound  Words  553 

Romance  languages  would  tend  to  show  also  that  certain 
kinds  of  adjectives,  as  those  of  color,  shape,  adjectives 
derived  from  proper  names,  and  past  participles  must 
always  have  followed  their  nouns, ^  uninfluenced  by  con- 
siderations of  style.  These  are,  in  fact,  the  only  rules  which 
can  possibly  govern  the  position  of  the  adjective  and  noun 
in  words  formed  by  juxtaposition.  To  be  welded  together 
in  a  single  word,  the  adjective  and  the  noun  must  have 
been  used  together  often  in  the  form  in  which  we  find  them. 

The  above  rules  are  borne  out  by  the  examples  we  find 
in  Provengal  of  the  formations  by  juxtaposition.  Darme- 
steter  states  that  in  French,  the  determinant  (here,  adjec- 
tive) precedes  in  a  large  majority  of  the  examples.^ 
This  is  in  accordance  with  what  Meyer-Liibke  says 
of  the  usual  position  of  the  adjective  in  post-Classic 
Latin.^  In  Provengal,  the  number  of  examples  of  the 
two  types  of  words  is  still  more  more  evenly  divided; 
yet  both  lists  are  too  small  to  prove  anything  but  a 
submission  to  the  main  rules  mentioned  above. 

a)  In  the  following  cases,  the  adjective  precedes  the 
noun : 

helacara*  good  cheer;     table- 
service,  place  at  table 
helagarda,^ 

bonaur,  good  fortune 
falsarenha,  nearhand  rein 

1  Yet  even  these  must  have  depended  to  some  extent  on  the  time  and 
place  of  their  formation.  Thus  in  albaspina  (Ft.  aubepine)  we  have  the 
adjective  of  color  preceding. 

2  Mots  Composes,  23.  ^  m,  814. 

*  From  bela,  fine,  and  cara,  face.  This  last  is,  however,  of  the  same 
origin  as  the  Engl,  "cheer,"  which  in  the  phrase  "good  cheer"  has  often 
come  to  mean  "food  and  drink"  or  "entertainment,"  thus  not  differ- 
ing much  in  meaning  from  the  Prov.  word. 

5  Not  listed  in  Raynouard  or  Levy,  but  given  in  the  example  placed 
under  cautpres  as  another  illustration  of  a  compound  word.  It  would 
appear  from  its  formation  to  mean  "fair  guardian."     See  Levy,  I,  230. 


554  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

nialacoi'datisa,  quarrel 
malaize,  discomfort 
malapaga,^  debtor's  prison 
malavezina,  engine  of  war 
malcor,  anger 

malprofech,  dishonest  gains  (  ?) 
megdin,  noon 
megfraire,  half-brother 
megjorn,  noon 
megloc,  middle 
meg-pe,'  (?) 
mejaseror,  half-sister 
midons,  my  lady 
milfolh,  milfoil,  yarrow 
milgrana,  pomegranate 
mossenhor,  my  lord 
orremal,  epilepsy 
prim-car esme,  Ash  Wednesday 
primver,  Spring 
salvagarda,]  safeguard 

'  Another  word  ending  in  paga  is  mortapaga,  meaning  "a  company 
of  12,000  infantry."  It  would  appear  to  be  formed  of  morta,  dead, 
and  paga,  pay,  and  the  order  of  words  would  be  unusual. 

2  The  precise  meaning  is  not  made  clear  by  the  example. 


t  Also  probably  of  Lat.  origin  are  albespina,  hawthorn,  and  auriban, 
gold  banner,  auriflama,  oriflamme,  auriflor,  banner  with  a  flower  of 
gold,  and  auripel  or  aurpel,  tinsel.  The  use  of  auri  from  aureus  in  these 
last  words  indicates  Lat.  origin.  Auriflor  is,  indeed,  found  in  the  texts 
as  auria  flor.  Cf.  also  the  Fr.  oriflamme  and  oripcau.  In  the  Mots 
Composes,  this  last  word  is  listed  under  another  kind  of  formation.  More 
or  less  obscure  words  belonging  here  are  plenega,  ewer,  watering-pot,  and 
princol,  wine  that  comes  from  the  press  before  the  grapes  have  been 
pressed.  Plevega  has  been  suggested  as  a  correction  for  plenega,  in 
which  case  the  word  would  be  formed  of  a  verb  and  noun,  the  verb 
being  pleure,  rain.  But  unless  the  meaning  is  only  "watering-pot," 
this  formation  is  hardly  probable.  On  the  other  hand,  plenega  would 
have  to  be  formed  of  plen,  fuU,  and  ega,  water,  and  as  "ewer"  would 
indicate  a  formation  of  "full  of  water"  rather  than  "full  water,"  there 
would  seem  to  be  a  case  relation  between  the  two  words,  which  indicates 
formation  in  the  Lat.  period.  Princol  seems  to  be  formed  of  prim, 
first,  and  col,  flow.  Col  with  the  meaning  of  "flow"  is  not  found.  It 
would  seem  to  be  a  postverbal  noun  formed  on  color. 

It  may  be  observed  that  in  almost  all  the  words  in  this  list  the  adjec- 
tive is  one  meaning  "good,"  "fine,"  "bad,"  "half,"  or  a  numeral  or 
possessive  adjective. 


Compound  Words  555 

b)  In  the  following  cases,  the  adjective  is  placed  after 
the  noun : 

annou,  New  Year 

arcvoUut,  arch,  niche,  embrasure 

(campoliera,^  olive-grove) 

capvan,  a  kind  of  verse 

corpmarin,  cormorant 

facabela,  fair  face  ?- 

favafracha^  (sdso  faufrach) ,  broken' bean 

festanal,  yearly  festival 

jurvert,  verjuice 

malafacha^  (aho  malfach) ,  misdeed; 

damage  done  to  fields 
manmesa,^  seizure,  execution 
mantersa,^  towel 
margras,  Shrove-Tuesday 
ormier,  pure  gold ;  also  gold  ornament 
pasaaguda,  bitter  grape(  ?) 
pedrech,  pier,  upright 
pelegata,^  soft  flesh 

1  Apparently  formed  of  camp  and  oliera,  olive-bearing,  the  word  is 
instead  probably  formed  of  two  nouns.  For  fuller  treatment  see  the 
nouns  formed  of  two  nouns,  p.  558,  n.  2,  below. 

2  Apparently  the  name  of  a  horse,  the  original  form  of  the  first  part 
possibly  being /aga.  The  position  of  beta  after  the  noun  instead  of  before 
it,  as  in  belacara  which  originally  had  the  same  meaning,  is  to  be 
observed. 

3  Favafracha  and  malafacha,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  list,  are  found 
also  as  faufrach  and  jnalfach,  or  in  other  words,  a  masc.  and  fem.  form 
exist  side  by  side  in  these  two  cases.  Faufrach  and  malafacha  appear 
to  be  only  analogical  forms,  however.  The  former  is  possibly  due  to  the 
analogy  of  naufrach  (Lat.  naufragium).  Malfach  is  from  the  Lat. 
malefactum,  an  adverb-noun  combination. 

<  From  7nan,  hand, -l-7ftes(a),  placed.  A  similar  formation,  mcinu- 
m,issio,  exists  in  Lat.,  but  manmesa  is  independent  of  it,  as  may  be  seen 
both  in  its  form  and  in  its  meaning. 

5  From  man,  hand,  +tersa,  smooth,  polished  ?  Ters  is  not  in  Ray- 
nouard,  and  the  little  Levy  gives  only  the  translation  deniie  under  the 
heading  of  the  verb  ferzer.  Ters  is,  however,  of  the  same  origin  as  the 
Sp.  terso,  and  would  seem  to  have  a  similar  meaning. 

•  This  word  is  very  puzzling  and  may  not  belong  here,  as  it  is  possible 
that  it  is  of  Lat.  origin,  coming  from  some  such  form  as  *pellicata.  If 
a  Prov.  formation,  it  may  be  a  combination  of  pel,  skin,  and  the  past 


556  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

pcnegre,  blackfoot  (a  kind  of  bird) 
pevermelh,  a  kind  of  bird 
prclzfach,  forfeit 
ratapcnada,  bat 
terramajor ,'\  Holy  Land 

II.  FORMED  OF  AN  ADVERB  AND  A  NOUN 

Another  kind  of  formation  similar  to  the  one  just 
described  is  that  in  which  the  component  parts  are  an 
adverb  (instead  of  an  adjective)  and  a  noun.  Almost 
the  only  adverbs  used  in  this  way,  however,  are  hen,  mat, 
and  non,  and  the  nouns  used  with  hen  and  mat  are  ones 
derived  from  verbs.  The  relation  in  such  cases  between 
the  tw^o  parts  of  the  compound  is  again,  therefore,  simply 
one  of  juxtaposition,  as  above  described. 

There  are  not  very  many  examples  of  this  type  of 

formation : 

benplazemen,^  pleasure,  satisfaction 

benvenguda,  welcome 

maisvalensa,  greater  value,  advantage 


participle  of  legar,  to  melt  or  soften.  The  form  should  then  be  pelegada. 
The  difficulties  are  further  increased  by  the  existence  of  a  word  pele- 
ganiier,  skin-dealer — which  thus  has  an  n  to  be  accounted  for — and  a 
form  peleganto  in  Mistral. 

1  The  formation  of  this  word  appears  to  be  ben  -\-plazemen,  although 
plazemen  is  not  found.  Neither  is  there  found,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
verb  benplazer  on  which  the  noun  might  have  been  formed  by  means  of 
the  suffix  -EMEN.  Yet  a  parasynthetic  formation  with  ben  as  prefix 
seems  least  probable  of  all,  as  nominal  parasyntheta  even  with  the  com- 
monest prefixes  are  unusual.     See  also  hybrids,  p.  578. 


t  Compound  words  of  this  type  of  Lat.  origin  are  aurfres,  orphrey< 
aurum  phrygium,  later  phrysium;  austarda,  bustard  <a«ts  tarda;  aves- 
Iruz,  ostrich<aTOS  struthio;  estafizagria,  stavesacre <estafiz  agria;  and 
naufrach,  shipwreck <n.au/raffmTO. 

In  the  above  list,  many  of  the  adjectives  are  past  participles,  as  in 
arcvoltut,  favafracha,  malafacha,  manmesa,  mantersa,  pretzfrach,  and 
ratapenada;  some  are  adjectives  of  color,  as  seen  in  jurvert,  penegre,  and 
pevermelh,  and  the  others  are  all  descriptive  adjectives,  which  seem  to 
have  had  in  O.  Prov.,  as  in  the  Romance  languages  of  today,  the  position 
after  the  noun. 


Compound  Words  557 

mensvalensa,  smaller  value 

noncura,  indifference 

nonfe,  infidelity 

nongarda,  negligence 

nonre{n),  nothing 

nonsen,  nonsense 

nonsenhor,'\  unlawful  possessor 

To  this   list  should   be  added   a  few  other  words  in 

which  the  second  part  of  the  compound  has  the  form  of  a 

verb.     It  is,  indeed,  in  all  cases,  the  infinitive  used  as  a 

noun.     The   examples   are: 

benestar,  well-being 
malestar,  discomfort 
malsaber,  dissatisfaction 
nonpoder,  impotence 
nonsaber,  ignorance 
nonvaler,  lack  of  value 

III.      FORMED    OF    TWO    NOUNS 

This  is  the  kind  of  formation  which  is  called  compo- 
sition proper  by  Darmesteter  as  distinguished  from  the 
formations  by  juxtaposition  above  treated.  Not  that 
all  French  nouns  composed  of  two  nouns  would  necessarily 
be  placed  by  him  under  that  heading,  but  if  the  distin- 
guishing mark  of  a  compound  proper  is  an  ellipsis,  then 
for  Provencal,  a  compound  proper  and  a  noun  formed 
of  two  nouns  are  practically  synonymous.^ 

The  most  obvious  case  of  ellipsis  among  the  words 
formed  of  two  nouns  is  that  in  which  one  of  the  two 
appears  to  be  in  the  genitive  case.  In  other  words,  the 
preposition  de,  or  occasionally  some  other  preposition,  is 

1  The  only  certain  examples  of  words  formed  of  two  nouns  with  no 
ellipsis,  but  having  a  preposition  between  them,  appear  to  be  coragoJa 
(one  with)  his  heart  in  his  mouth,  and  capafoc,  andiron. 


t  All  of  the  words  beginning  with  non  have  as  their  second  part  a 
simple  noun.  In  the  other  cases,  the  second  part  is  a  noun  derived  from 
a  verb.     In  the  second  list,  this  part  is  a  simple  verb-form  used  as  a  noun. 


558  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

understood,  but  not  expressed.  Here  again,  sometimes 
the  modified  word  {determine),  and  sometimes  the  modi- 
fying word  {determinant)  precedes.  In  this  case,  however, 
it  seems  impossible  to  discover  any  rule  of  order. 

a)  In  the  following  examples,  the  principal  or  modified 
word  precedes: 

aiganeu,  snow-water 

aigaros(a),  rose-water 

arcs .  marti{n) ,  rainbow  (literall.y 
bow  [of]  St.  Martin) 

barbajohan,^  horned  owl 

campoliera,-  olive-grove 

dialus,    Monday    {dibes,    Friday, 
etc.)  (literally  day  [of]  Moon, 
etc.) 

fumterra,  fumitory  (a  plant)  (liter- 
ally smoke  [of]  earth.  Cf. 
Engl,  "earth-smoke") 

intrat-caresme,  Shrovetide  (liter- 
ally entrance  [of]  Lent) 

lachuscla,  wolf's  milk 

monjoia,  war-cry  of  the  French^ 

pcdagrilh*  a  kind  of  implement 
(literally  handle  [for]  gridiron) 

palfer,  iron  lever 

'  Found  also  in  Fr.  and  written  by  Darmesteter,  in  Mots  Composes, 

harhe-h-Jean  as  well  as  barbajan. 

2  Campoliera  is  decidedly  peculiar  in  form,  but  the  fem.  ending  of 
-oliera  makes  it  impossible  for  this  word  to  be  an  adjective,  since  in  the 
formations  by  juxtaposition,  as  has  been  seen  above,  there  is  agreement 
between  the  two  parts.  If  the  second  part  of  this  compound  is  a  noun, 
however,  -oliviera  instead  of  -oliera  would  be  the  proper  form.  The 
form  we  find  appears  to  be  due  to  some  confusion,  possibly  with  the 
adjective  olier,  oil-producing.  The  words  for  "oil"  and  "olive"  are, 
indeed,  badly  confused  in  Prov.  Levy  gives  an  example  of  oliu  instead 
of  Olivier,  meaning  "olive-tree";  also  an  example  of  oliviera  instead  of 
oliera,  meaning  "oil-can." 

3  The  Fr.  monjoie,  probably  for  mont-(de)-joie,  hence  listed  here. 
See  Korting,  No.  6275;   also  Romania,  XXXI,  416. 

'Formed  of  pala  (stick  or  handle) -\-grilh  (gridiron).  With  this 
meaning,  however,  only  grilha  and  not  grilh  is  found.  Yet  grilh  probably 
had  this  meaning  too.     Cf.  the  Fr.  gril. 


Compound  Words  559 

peirafuga,^  flint  (literally  stone 
[for]  fire.  Cf.  English  "fire- 
stone") 

rampalm,  t  Palm-Sunday  (liter- 
ally branch  [of]  palm,  English 
"palm-branch") 

h)  The  modifying  word  precedes  in  the  examples  in 

the  following  list: 

capmalh,  head-armor 
cordolor,  pity,  compassion 
dendolor,  toothache 
formicaleon,-  ant-catcher 
galcan,  galcantar,  cockcrow 
pelpartidura,  part  in  the  hair 
perozina,  resin 

terragarda,^  keeping  up  of  stand- 
ing crop 
terratremol,^^  earthquake 

1  Peirafuga  is  peculiar  in  form  in  that  it  is  clearly  made  up  of  peira, 
stone,  and  fuc,  fire,  probably  connected  by  the  preposition  a — just  like 
the  Fr.  pierre-h-feu — and  yet  has  the  change  of  fuc  to  fuga.  Just  why 
fuc  should  have  taken  a  feminine  ending  is  not  clear,  and  Thomas,  who 
first  lists  the  word,  offers  no  explanation  of  it  (see  Romania,  XXXIV, 
200).  The  only  possible  one  seems  to  be  that  the  preposition  was  lost 
sight  of  owing  to  confusion  with  the  feminine  ending  of  peira,  and  that 
then  fuc,  from  its  use  as  an  adjective,  came  finally  to  be  taken  for  one 
and  made  to  agree  as  the  adjectives  in  the  formations  by  juxtaposition 
did.  A  case  in  which  the  second  noun  appears  to  have  two  forms  is 
aigaros,  aigarosa. 

2  Possibly  Lat.    Cf.  the  Fr.  fourmi-lion. 

'  Possibly  a  postverbal  formation  on  terragardar. 

t  There  are  also  to  be  mentioned  a  few  formations  of  this  kind,  but 
whose  parts  were  joined  in  Lat.  times.  Such  are  barbajolh,  house  leek; 
cabiscol,  choir-director;  and  vavasor,  vassal  of  a  vassal.  Forms  corre- 
sponding to  barbajolh  and  vavasor  exist  in  Fr.,  only  in  the  first  case,  the 
Fr.  joubarbe,  the  order  of  the  two  parts  is  reversed.  The  Lat.  sources  are 
the  phrases  barba  jovis  and  vassus  vassorum.  The  source  of  cabiscol 
appears  to  be  caput  scholae.  Both  this  phrase  and  the  compound 
capischolus  are  found  in  Du  Cange  with  the  meaning  which  cabiscol  has. 

tt  There  are  also  some  words  of  this  kind  that  are  not  Prov.  forma- 
tions. Of  these  cabrefolh,  honeysuckle  (<caprifolium)  and  cordolh, 
grief,  sorrow  {<cordolium),  are  descended  from  Lat.  formations.  Estoc- 
fich,  stockfish,  appears  to  be  a  borrowing  of  Germ,  origin.     Other  words 


569  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

c)  There  is  also  a  second  kind  of  composition  by  which 

compound  nouns  are  formed  of  two  single  nouns,  called 

bj''  Darmesteter  composition  by  apposition.     In  the  words 

formed  in  this  wa}',  neither  noun  serves  to  modify  the 

other  by  any  case-relation  as  was  true  of  those  in  List  a. 

The  idea  of  two  distinct  objects  is  conceived  at  the  same 

time,  and  the  two  are  used  together  to  describe  some 

single  object.     This  necessarily  gives  a  kind  of  adjective 

force  to  one  of  the  nouns,  which  is  often  best  rendered  in 

English  by  an  adjective.     Thus,    for    example,  ramfuel 

(leaf + branch)  maybe  translated  "leafy branch."     There 

are    not    a    great    many    compounds    of   this    kind    in 

Provencal. ^     The  list  follows: 

arquibaric,  bench  serving  also  as  a 

chest 
capcazal,  chief  country-house 
cornamuza,^  bagpipe 

'  Cf.  with  this  brief  list  the  great  development  this  kind  of  formation 
has  taken  in  the  Romance  languages  of  today,  particularly  Fr.  Observe 
for  example  the  words  denoting  the  railway  conveniences:  wagon-lit, 
wagon-restaurant,  wagon-cuisine,  wagon-imprimeur,  etc.  In  Engl.,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  by  the  preceding  process  that  these  and  most  other 
words  are  formed. 

2  A  word  found  in  several  of  the  Romance  languages,  as  in  Fr., 
Sp.,  and  It.,  as  well  as  Prov.,  thus  indicating  a  probable  Lat.  origin. 
Du  Cange,  indeed,  does  give  cornamusa,  but  only  in  very  late  examples, 
and  the  other  forms  are  probably  all  borrowings  from  Fr.  instead  of 
coming  from  Lat.  The  first  part  of  the  word  is  clearly  coma,  horn, 
and  the  second  a  *muse  which  is  found  now  only  in  its  diminutives  niuseau 
and  musette.  This  last  word  has  now  the  meaning  which  muse  must 
originally  have  had  in  the  compound. 


almost  certainly  of  Lat.  origin,  though  no  Lat.  etymon  is  found,  are 
pancogola  and  pancosier,  baker  (which  seem  to  come  from  *panicocula 
and  * panicociarius)  and  m,asapan,  a  small  box,  apparently  for  carrying 
either  letters  or  candy.  For  pancogola  and  pancosier,  see  Essais, 
343-44.  Masapan  is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Fr.  massepain,  the  Sp. 
mazapan,  the  It.  marzapane,  and  the  Engl,  "marchpane,"  though  the 
precise  source  of  the  series  appears  uncertain.  The  meaning  of  the 
Prov.  word,  however,  is  different  from  that  of  most  of  the  other  words, 
which  is  "a  kind  of  paste  made  of  almonds  and  sugar." 


Compound  Words  561 

esquilgacha,^  watch,  sentinel 
foldat-saber,  mixture  of  folly  and 

wisdom 
merdafer,-  scrap-iron 
porc-espin,^  porcupine 
portafenestra,   window    extending 

to  the  level  of  the  floor 
ramfuel,  leafy  branch 
terramaire,  t  Mother  Earth 

IV.      FORMED   OF    A   VERB    AND    A   NOUN 

The  only  remaining  kind  of  compound  nouns  con- 
sists of  those  formed  of  a  verb  and  a  noun.'*  Almost  all 
of  the  words  of  this  class  denote  concrete  objects  or  instru- 
ments, although  a  few  denote  persons.  In  other  words, 
they  denote  the  thing  or  the  person  performing  the  special 
function  described  by  the  compound.  Thus,  for  example, 
hufa-foc  (blower)  means  "that  which  blows  the  fire" 
and  bufa-tizon  "the  person  who  blows  a  firebrand." 
There  is  apparently,  therefore,  an  ellipsis  of  "that  which" 
or  of  "the  one  who,"  and  it  might  easily  be  supposed  that 
the  verb  in  the  compound  was  in  the  indicative.  This, 
however,  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case.  Darmesteter 
has  very  clearly  shown  that  this  kind  of  ellipsis  would 
be  incredible,  and  that,  whatever  tense  may  seem  obvious 

I  From  esquila,  bell,  and  gacha,  watch?  Both  these  words  are  of 
Germ,  origin,  and  the  compound  may  have  been  a  Germ,  formation 
borrowed  in  Prov.  like  estocfich  above,  which  might  possibly  be  placed 
in  this  list. 

-  For  this  word,  see  Romania,  XXXIV,  196. 

3  Of.  the  Fr.  pore-epic  and  similar  forms  in  other  languages. 

*  Aside  from  the  possible  case  of  a  word  formed  of  two  imperatives, 
the  only  example  of  which  appears  to  be  can-plor  (gully-hole;  water- 
pot)  also  written  cantaplora,  probablj^  under  the  influence  of  the  Fr. 
chanlepleure. 


t    A  formation  similar  to  those  in  the  list,  but  certainly  of  Lat. 
origin  is  domerdeu,    Lord   God<dominus  dcus. 


562  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

when  these  forms  are  analyzed,  when  the  words  were 
formed,  nevertheless,  not  the  indicative  but  the  imperative 
was  used.  The  indicative  was  supposed  to  be  present  in 
the  forms  when  they  were  examined  later  on,  and  conse- 
quently appears  in  new  analogical  formations.  But  the 
simple  people  who  made  the  first  forms,  being  more  imag- 
inative, personified  inanimate  objects,  and  addressed  them 
and  made  them  speak.     Hence  the  use  of  the  imperative. 

If  inanimate  objects,  therefore,  be  personified,  they 
may  speak  or  be  spoken  to,  as  well  as  be  spoken  of,  and 
Darmesteter  gives  examples  of  each  type  for  French.  For 
Provencal,  however,  all  of  the  words  are  of  the  type  of 
bufa-foc  and  hufa-tizon,  in  which  the  object  as  well  as  the 
person  may  be  supposed  to  be  addressed.  Thus:  "You 
[object],  blow  the  fire!"  and  "You  [person],  blow  the 
firebrand!"     The  other  classes  are  lacking  in  Provengal. 

In  the  two  examples  given  above,  the  verb  has  a  direct 
object  as  its  complement,  which  is  the  case  in  the  great 
majority  of  examples.  There  is,  however,  one  case  at 
least,  in  which  the  object  is  not  direct  but  is  connected 
with  the  verb  by  means  of  a  preposition,  and  several 
probable  cases  of  a  verb  accompanied  not  by  a  direct 
object,  but  by  a  noun  in  the  vocative.  In  other  words, 
the  verb  in  these  cases  is  intransitive,  and  the  noun  form- 
ing part  of  the  compound  is  the  one  addressed.  The 
lists  follow. 

a)    The  verb  is  accompanied  by  a  direct  object  in 

bufnfoc,  blower 

hufa-tizon,  one  who  blows  a  firebrand 
cachapech,  parapet 
calcatrepa,  star-thistle  (cover-trap) 
cercapotz,^   a  hooked  stick  used   in 
cleaning  wells 

'  The  word  is  given  by  Thomas  (Romania,  XXXIV,  180). 


Compound  Words  563 

cobricap,    veil    for   covering    the 

head 
cocha-disnar,  cook 
cornavin,  the  one  who  gives  the 

signal  for  wine-drinking 
crebacor,  a  heart-rending  thing 
crebamostier,  one  who  breaks  into 

a  monastery 
destrui-cortezia,  one  who  disturbs 

court-etiquette 
ensiima-man,  towel 
escalfalech,  bed-warmer 
gachafoc,  andiron 
gachaporta,  sentinel 
gardabratz,  armlet;  splint 
gardacors,   long  shirt  {garda,  pro- 
tect+cors,  body) 
gardamanjar,  pantry,  larder 
gardatasas,  one  in  charge  of  cups, 

etc. 
lavamans,  towel 
liabratz,  sling 
liacamba,  garter 
liapel,  head-dress 
mactafelon,  whip  used  in  flogging 

sailors  {macta,  kill+f elon,  rascal) 
mandagach,    one    who    calls    the 

watch  together 
matagilos,  lance  (killer  of  jealous 

men) 
nega-barnatge,  destroyer  of  nobil- 
ity 
parabanda,    parapet,     balustrade 

{para,  protect +6onfZa,  side) 
parafol,^  scantling 
parapech,  parapet  (para,  protect + 

pech,  breast) 
paraven,    screen     (para,     protect 

[hom]-\-ven,  wind) 

1  Fol  is  found  for  the  second  part,  but  it  probably  should  be  corrected' 
to     -folk,     meaning     "plank."     Parafolha     is     also     found     meaning 

"  garret "(?). 


564  Word-Formation  in  PROVENg.\L 

pnsabarrador,'^  a  kind  of  metal  (?) 

(for  heavy  barring  ?) 
pasalirnalha,  sieve  for  iron  filings 
pasataulada,  a  kind  of  nail  {pasa, 

pass  through+taulada,  plank 
pasatemps,  pastime 
picaplach,  seeker  of  lawsuits 
portaescusel,  shield-bearer 
portafais,  porter 
portaletras,  letter-carrier 
portapanier,  basket-carrier 
porkipesa,     punch     {porta,     carry 

[away] -Hpesa,  piece) 
talhapena,'\  pen  cutter 

h)  The  verb  is  accompanied  by  an  indirect  comple- 
ment.    The  only  example  appears  to  be: 

crop-en-camin,  coward   (one  who 
cowers  on  the  way) 

1  Barrador  is  found  both  in  the  phrase  clavel  barrador  and  in  the 
phrase  clavel  de  barrador,  and,  in  the  same  passage  with  the  latter,  is  the 
phrase  clavel  de  pasabarrador.  Thus  barrador  is  used  first  as  an  adjec- 
tive, then  as  a  noun;  but  the  phrases  de  barrador  and  de  pasabarrador  are 
adjective  phrases  modifying  clavel.  De  barrador  seems  to  mean  "for 
barring"  and  de  pasabarrador  would  appear  from  this  to  mean  "for 
heavy  barring,"  pasa  here  having  the  intensive  force  that  it  has  in 
pasagran,  etc. 


t  Several  other  words  whose  formation  is  uncertain  should  be 
mentioned  here,  although,  in  some  cases,  the  formation  of  the  words  is 
so  obscure  that  they  may  not  belong  to  this  list  at  all.  The  less  obscure 
ones,  which  probably  belong  here,  will  be  treated  first. 

Such  words  are  machacol,  ma^haferre,  and  picape.  Of  these,  picape, 
if  it  exists,  should  give  no  difficulty.  It  denotes  a  kind  of  weapon,  and 
would  be  formed  of  pica  (imperative  of  picar,  to  prick), +pe,  foot:  but 
Levy  questions  the  form.  Machaferre,  slag,  dross,  seems  to  be  composed 
of  the  same  first  part  that  is  in  machacol,  and  fer(re),  iron.  Machacol, 
machicolation,  is  a  most  difficult  word  to  explain  because  of  the  other 
forms  found  in  Prov.  and  in  Fr.  It  appears  to  be  formed  of  machar, 
bruise,  crush  (a  dialect  form  of  macarf),  and  col,  neck,  the  machicola- 
tion being  an  opening  in  the  floor  of  a  balcony  through  which  missiles 
were  cast  on  the  heads  of  the  enemy.  No  corresponding  simple  form  is 
found  in  O.  Fr.,  but  a  verb  machecoller  appears.  Now,  by  supposing  the 
existence  of  a  similar  verb  *machacolar  in  Prov.,  the  remaining  verbal 
derivatives  machacolada,  machacoladura,  and  machacolamen  (see  hybrids) 


Compound  Words  565 

c)  The  verb  is  accompanied  by  a  noun  in  the  vocative. 

The  only  examples  appear  to  be: 

giraflor,  sunflower 
grataboisa,^  scratch-brush 
malh-moton,  battering-ram 
marcape,  step  (on  carriages) 

d)  Besides  all  the  words  denoting  persons  or  concrete 

things,  such  as  are  given  above,  there  are  a  few  words 

abstract  in  force,  which  may  be  given  separately.     In 

three  of  the  four  words^  found,  the  noun  appears  to  be  in 

the  vocative,  as  in  List  c) ,  whereas  in  the  other  word,  it 

is  the  object  of  the  verb  with  which  it  is  used.     In  baticor 

and  fenimon,  the  i  of  the  verb  may  be  explained  as  due  to 

the  influence  of  the  Italian  hatticuore  and  finimondo,  of 

which  the  Provengal  forms  appear  to  be  imitations.     The 

other  two  words  have  regular  imperative  forms: 

baticor,  beating  of  the  heart 
botacais,  svveUing  of  the  cheeks 
fenimon,  end  of  the  world 
fai-mi-drech,  jurisdiction 

1  The  usual  form  of  the  word  for  "brush"  is  brosa.  Cf.,  however, 
the  Fr.  gratte-boesse  in  which  the  word  for  brush  is  represented  by  a 
dialect  form. 

2  Baticor,  botacais,  and  fenimon. 

may  be  explained,  as  well  as  the  Engl,  "machicolation,"  from  the  verb 
"to  machicolate."  The  worst  difficulty  occurs  in  attempting  to  explain 
the  Fr.  machecoulis  or  machicoulis,  which  appears  as  machecoleis  in  O.  Fr. 
(see  Godefroy,  supplement),  and  seems  to  indicate  some  association  with 
the  verb  couler,  to  flow.  This  verb  (in  Prov.  colar)  may  be  the  real 
source  of  the  second  part  of  the  Fr.  and  Prov.  words  both,  but  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Prov.  machacol  (and  the  Engl,  "machecole"),  as  well  as  the 
meaning,  seems  to  make  col,  neck,  as  the  source  of  the  second  part  of  the 
word,  more  probable,  and  the  appearance  of  the  verb  for  "to  flow"  in 
the  Fr.  forms  due  to  a  later  association. 

The  more  obscure  words  are  picompan,  a  kind  of  dance,  and  pitafle, 
armorial  bearings.  This  last  word  appears  thoroughly  obscure.  Picom- 
pan seems  to  be  formed  of  picar,  to  strike,  and  some  other  word,  possibly 
plan,  market-place,  tournament-field.  Matafiloza,  anis,  which  resembles 
in  form  some  of  the  words  in  the  above  hst,  is  not  a  compound  at  all. 

A  word  of  Lat.  origin  is  cobresel,  \id<cooi->ercellum. 


566  Word-Formation  in  Provencal 

e)  There  is  one  more  class  of  nouns  formed  of  a  verb 

and  a  noun  differing  slightly  from  the  preceding  words, 

but  represented  by  very  few  examples.     Here  the  noun 

precedes,  and  the  form  of  the  verb  is  clearly  the  present 

participle.     In  henstenen  and  logatenen,  the  formation  is  a 

simple   juxtaposition,    and   the   combination   forms   the 

adjectives  meaning  property-holding  and  place-holding. 

The   nouns   of   this    class   are    simply,  adjectives    used 

substantively : 

henstenen,  heir 
logatenen,  deputy 
mantenen,  balustrade 
viandan,  wayfarer 

B.     ADJECTIVES 

I.     FORMED    OF    A    NOUN    AND    AN    ADJECTIVE     (OR    PARTICIPLE) 

There  are  some  words  composed  of  a  noun  and  an 
adjective  that  are  difficult  to  classify.  Most  of  these 
words  are  translated  by  Levy  as  adjectives,  but  in  the 
examples  that  he  gives  of  them,  they  are  apparently 
nouns  with  a  specialized  meaning.  These  nouns,  however, 
always  designating  certain  kinds  of  verse,  could  hardly 
have  been  formed  as  nouns  for  this  purpose,  particularly 
as  adjectives  of  precisely  the  same  formation  and  con- 
taining the  noun  cap,  which  occurs  in  most  of  the  nouns, 
exist  beside  them.^  These  words  seem,  on  the  contrary, 
to  have  been  used  before  this  as  adjectives  with  certain 
words  indicating  verse,  as  vers,  cohla,^  etc.     Then,  as  was 

1  It  would  be  possible  to  assume  that  certain  of  these  names  of 
verse-forms  were  used  originally  as  nouns,  as,  for  example,  captrencat,  in 
describing  a  kind  of  verse  with  a  part  lacking,  but  this  seems  improbable. 
In  capenclin  we  see  the  same  kind  of  formation  appearing  only  as 
adjective,  and  most  of  the  other  words  beginning  with  cap-  appear  both 
as  noun  and  adjective.     See  the  list  below. 

2  The  phrases  coblas  capcaudadas  and  coblas  capfinidas  are  actually 
found  beside  the  noun  capcaudat  and  form  the  best  argument  for  the  pre- 
vious use  as  adjectives  of  all  the  nouns  beginning  with  cap. 


Compound  Words  567 

so  often  the  case,  the  adjective  was  used  alone,  the 
noun  first  being  understood,  and  later  became  a  noun, 
pure  and  simple. 

These  words,  found  as  adjectives,  therefore,  at  once 
suggest  a  comparison  with  the  other  words  formed  of  a 
noun  and  an  adjective — namely  the  nouns  formed  by 
juxtaposition.  In  accordance  with  that  class  of  words, 
hocafort,  for  example,  should  mean  "strong  mouth" 
instead  of  ''strong-mouthed,"  which  it  actually  does  mean. 
Possibly  ''strong  mouth"  was  its  original  meaning,  and 
a  bodily  characteristic  being  described,  an  attempt  would 
naturally  follow  to  apply  it  to  some  particular  person, 
thus  making  it  an  adjective.^  Possibly,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  first  step  may  be  omitted,  and  the  adjective 
bocafort  have  been  created  spontaneously  to  satisfy  a 
linguistic  need.^  At  any  rate,  there  Is  a  number  of  adjec- 
tives of  similar  formation,  whereas  the  words  containing 
cap  have  gone  one  step  farther,  and  are  once  more  nouns, 
though  with  the  speciahzed  sense  above  described. 

The  nouns  in  these  compounds  of  noun  and  adjective 
call  for  no  comment.  In  the  case  of  the  adjectives,  how- 
ever, it  is  worthy  of  note  that  with  the  exception  of  auran, 
fort,  and  van  in  capauran,  bocafort,  and  capvan,  all  of  the 

1  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  we  have  here  an  ellipsis,  and  that 
bocafort  means  "(the  one  with  the)  strong  mouth." 

2  It  is  to  be  observed  that  there  exists  in  Prov.  no  way  of  forming 
adjectives  by  means  of  an  adjective  and  a  noun  with  a  participial  suffix 
attached  to  it,  as  in  the  Engl,  "strong-mouthed,"  "blue-eyed,"  etc. 
Nor  is  there  much  trace  either  of  the  kind  of  formation  consisting  of  a 
noun  modified  in  form  and  an  adjective,  so  common  in  Sp.,  in  barbiespeso, 
boquiduro,  etc.,  which  seem  to  be  only  imitations  of  Lat.  forms  {ig7ii- 
comus,  etc.).  The  only  Prov.  examples  appear  to  be  colilonc,  long- 
necked — which  may  be  compared  with  the  Sp.  cuellilargo — and  nazitort, 
garden-cress,  a  noun,  but  certainly  originally  an  adjective  similar  in 
formation  to  the  ones  just  mentioned,  and  probably  meaning  "hook- 
nosed." 


568  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

adjectives  are  participles  of  verbs.  Alapens^  is  the  only- 
example  of  a  possible  present  participle ;  all  the  other  words 
show  past  participles  either  of  actual  Provengal  verbs,  as 
in  capcuhert  and  capdescubert,  or  are  descendants  of  Latin 
past  participles,-  understood  now  only  as  adjectives.  All 
may,  however,  be  treated  together  as  adjectives.  The 
complete  list  follows : 

alapens,  with  hanging  wings 
bocafort,  hard-mouthed 
bocatort,  wry-mouthed 
capauran,  with  head  in  the  air(  ?) ; 

also  a  verse-form 
capcaudat     {coblas  capcaudas),   a 

verse-form 
capclin,   with  bent  head;    also  a 

verse-form 
capcorp,  with  bowed  head ;  also  a 

verse-form 
capcubert,  with  covered  head 
capdescubert,     with    uncovered 

head;  also  a  verse-form 
capdrech,  with  head  erect;   also  a 

verse-form 
capenclin,  with  head  inclined 
capfinit     (coblas     capfinidas),      a 

verse-form 
capras,  with  shorn  head 
captondut,  with  shorn  head;    also 

a  verse-form 
captrencat,  with  head  struck  off 
capvan,  a  verse-form 
fementit,  disloyal,  unfaithful 
fervestii,^  iron-clad 
golabadat,  open-mouthed 
lengaforbit,  smooth-tongued 
niafach,  hand-made 

1  It  seems  to  be  connected  with  pendre,  hang,  whose  present  parti- 
ciple should  be,  however,  penden{s). 

2  As  din,  enclin,  and  drech  in  the  formations  with  cap. 

3  The  verb  fervestir  is  found  in  O.   Fr.     For  reference,  see  Mots 
Composes,  162. 


Compound  Words  569 

ii.    formed   of   an   adverb    (or   adjective)   and   an    adjective 
(or  participle) 

It  will  be  at  once  observed  that  the  second  part  of  each 
word  of  this  list  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  words  of  the 
preceding  one.  Most  of  the  words  in  List  I  contained 
participial  adjectives,  and  it  was  there  pointed  out  that 
some  of  those  in  which  a  Provengal  past  participle  was 
not  to  be  found  contained  words  derived  from  Latin  ones. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  words  belonging  to  the 
following  list.  Either  a  present  or  a  past  participle  is 
clear  in  all  of  the  words  except  maladrech,  in  which  adrech 
comes  from  a  Latin  instead  of  a  Proven9al  past  participle, 
and  means  "skilled." 

It  is  in  the  first  part  of  each  word  that  this  list  differs 
from  the  preceding  one.  Whereas,  in  I^ist  I  we  have  a 
noun  which  the  following  adjective  modifies,  in  the  pres- 
ent list  the  first  part  is  always  an  adverb,  or  adjective 
used  as  such,  modifying  the  following  adjective.  The 
words  of  the  first  list,  being  modified  nouns,  might  be 
expected  to  form  nouns, '^  but  those  of  the  present  one, 
which  are  regularly  modified  adjectives,  can  become  only 
adjectives.  There  are,  however,  very  few  words  of  this 
kind.     The  list  follows:- 

benastruc,  fortunate,  blessed 
cautpres,^  caught  in  the  act  (warmly 
taken) 

1  Possibly  their  original  use,  as  explained  above. 

2  The  words  beginning  with  ben,  mal,  and  non  will  be  given  here 
rather  than  under  prefixes,  as  in  Darmesteter,  since  these  forms  are 
still  individual  words,  being  common  adverbs. 

3  Caut  in  this  example  seems  to  be  the  adjective  meaning  "warm" 
used  as  an  adverb.  A  somewhat  similar  expression  in  Engl.,  in  which, 
however,  the  whole  phrase  is  used  adverbially,  is  "hot-foot."  There  is 
also  a  noun  caut,  meaning  "heat,"  and  corresponding  to  the  Fr.  chaude. 
This  i.s  apparently  the  part  of  speech  that  Levy  sees  in  the  caut  of  caut- 
pres,  as  he  cites  from  Mistral  a  phrase  pres  sus  la  caudo,  which,  however, 
is  not  to  be  found  under  caudo  there. 


570  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

maladobal,  stupid,  awkward 
maladrech  ,^  awkward 
malapert,^  impertinent 
7nalapres,^  ill-bred 
malastruc,  unfortunate 
malazaut,  displeasing,  impolite 
malsabe,  disagreeable 
malsan,^  unhealthy 
megmort,  half-dead 
megviu,  half-alive 
nonapropinble,  inaccessible 
nonauzidor,-  unheard  of 
nonbatejat,  unbaptized,  heathen 
noncomprendable,  incomprehensible 
nonconvenivol,  improper 
noncrezable,  incredulous 
noncrezedor,  incredible 
noncrezen,  incredulous 
noncrezevol,-  incredulous 
noncurai,  indifferent 
nondefinit,-  undetermined 
nondepartible,  indivasible 
nondesienhable,^  inextinguishable 
nonesclavable,  impenetrable 
nonmortal,^  immortal 
nonnocejat,  unmarried 
nonnombral,-  innumerable 
nonnozen,^  innocent 
nonpar,"^  uneven 
nonpoderos,  impossible 
nonprofechos,  useless 
nonrecomtable,  unspeakable 
nonsanable,  incurable 
nonvezen,  sightless,  blind 
nonvezible,'^  invisible 

1  In  the  case  of  rnal,  corresponding  forms  in  Fr.  should  be  noted ; 
as  maladroit,  malappris,  malsain,  and  also  one  form  in  Engl.,  "malapert." 

2  For  many  of  the  forms  beginning  with  non  there  are  similar  forms 
in  Lat.,  but  having,  instead,  the  prefix  IN-,  which  are  the  forms  that 
have  come  down  into  the  other  Romance  languages.  The  Prov.  words 
show  a  recomposition,  and  sometimes  other  changes,  as  in  nonauzidor 
(Lat.  inauditus)  and  nondestenhable  (Lat.  inextinguibilis) .  Possibly 
nonauzidor   should    be   corrected    to   nonauzit. 


Compound  Words  571 

plenisonan,^  full-sounding 
poisnat,-  younger 
utnsonan,^'\  with  two  sounds 

C.     VERBS 
I.     FORMED    OF   AN    ADVERB    AND    A   VERB 

This  kind  of  formation  presents  little  difficulty.     The 

only  adverbs  found  are  ben  and  mal  and  non,  which,  as 

has  been  explained,  are  treated  here  rather  than  under 

prefixes.     There  are  also  two  adjectives — car  and  vil — 

which  will  be  treated  with  the  adverbs,  on  account  of 

their  use  as  adverbs  in  the   compounds.     The  list  is, 

therefore,  as  follows: 

bendir,  bless 
carvendre,  sell  dear 
maldire,  curse 
malmenar,  abuse 
malmerir,  be  undeserving 
mahnesdar,  compromise,  slander 
malmetre,  disturb,  displease 
maltrachar 


,,     .  ,  maltreat 

maltraire 

noncaler,  not  to  care 

m7<ener, ft  scorn,  hold  vile 

II.     FORMED   OF   A   NOUN   AND    A   VERB 

Another  type  of  compound  verb  is  that  formed  of  a 
noun  and  a  verb.  In  the  words  of  this  kind,  the  noun 
is  never  the  object  of  the  verb  as  it  was  in  the  nouns 

'  Plenisonan  and  utrisonan  are  probably  imitations  of  the  Lat. 
semisonans,  giving  semisonan  in  Prov.  Pleni  (Lat.  plenus)  and  utri  (Lat. 
uter)  are  found  in  no  other  words. 

2  Cf .  the  Fr.  puine,  Engl,  "puny." 


t  Another  word  that  would  probably  belong  here  if  its  existence  were 
certain,  is  amaridous,  bitterly  sweet  (?).  See  Zeitschrift,  XIV,  166. 
Malsaben,  displeased,  and  noncalen,  careless,  might  also  be  mentioned, 
though  they  are  simply  present  participles  of  verbs.  Malsaber  is 
found,  however,  only  in  its  use  as  a  noun. 

tt  For  benestar,  malestar,  and  nonsaber,  see  nouns.  List  2,  p.  557. 


572  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

composed  of  these  two  parts.  There  is,  on  the  contrary, 
an  elUpsis  just  as  there  was  in  one  of  the  classes  of  com- 
pound nouns  formed  of  two  nouns. ^  In  Latin,  there  were 
many  verbs,  such  as  manumittere,  formed  of  a  noun  and  a 
verb,  in  which  the  noun  was  in  the  ablative,  and  the 
origin  of  the  Provencal  words  may  be  sought  in  expressions 
of  this  kind.  There  is  generally,  therefore,  in  the  Proven- 
gal  words,  an  ellipsis  which  can  be  made  clear  by  supply- 
ing a  or  con.  It  is  probable  that  most  of  these  words 
go  back  to  expressions  existing  in  Latin  as  juxtaposed 
words,  even  if  not  already  fused  into  single  words,  although 
a  few  words  may  have  been  formed  in  Provencal  in  imi- 
tation of  these  words  when  finally  made  into  one.  In 
two  Provengal  words,  we  find  a  preposition  actually  ex- 
pressed. These  are  amantener  and  amentaver,  and  they 
exist  beside  the  forms  without  it,  mantener  and  mentaver. 
This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  ablative  force  of  the 
nouns  in  the  compounds  had  been  forgotten,  and  that 
for  this  reason  a-  was  prefixed;  but  it  may  be  merely 
another  example  of  the  meaningless  use  of  a-  as  prefix, 
already  seen  under  prefix-formation  and  parasyntheta. 
The  list  follows: 

calpisar,  trample  under  foot 
capvirar,-  turn  the  head(  ?) 
manlevar,  borrow;  bail 
mansaizir,  deliver  (something)  to 

(someone) 
mantener,  maintain 
marfondre,  chill 
mentaver^  (mentaure),  have  in  mind 

1  Pp.  558-59. 

2  This  word  is  given  in  the  Mots  Composes,  263,  but  is  listed  neither 
in  Raynouard  nor  in  Levy.     Cf.  the  Fr.  chavirer. 

3  Amentevoir  in  Fr.  is  found  furtlier  strengthened  by  the  use  of 
another  prefix  in  ramenfevoir. 


Compound  Words  573 

prestlevar,  lend,  borrow 
salpicar,  sprinkle  (with  salt) 
vianar,^  travel 

D.  ADVERBS 

Compound  adverbs  are  found  also,  but  the  forms  com- 
posed simply  of  two  ordinary  words  are  extremely  rare.^ 

They  are  seen  in: 

capval,  downward 
hueimais,  henceforth 
part-ier,  day  before  yesterday 

Other  more  complicated  forms  are : 

nescalre,  even,  in  the  same  way  =ne  es  cal  re{  ?) 

nomencal   (in  a  nomencal),   care-     =no  me  en  cal 

lessly 

nonpercan    I  ^,    ,  =non  per  can 

y  nevertheless 
nonpertan    )  =non  per  tan 

ondacom,  somewhere  =on{de)-  com 

1  There  are,  however,  forms  composed  of  two  words  +the  regular 
adverbial   suffix   -ment.     See   p.   582. 

2  Onde  or  onda  is  not  found  in  Prov.,  although  besides  the  ordinary 
form  on,  where,  there  is  a  form  ante.  The  onda  in  ondacom  seems  cer- 
tainly to  represent  the  Lat.  unde. 


t  Another  word  belonging  here,  if  it  exists,  is  cambaterrar,  dismount. 
Though  listed  in  Raynouard,  it  is  found,  however,  only  in  the  past  parti- 
ciple cambaterrat.  A  word  which  belongs  here  only  in  appearance  is 
solombrar,  shade,  as  the  sol-  probably  represents  a  Lat.  sub-  and  not  sol-. 


PARTT 

HYBRIDS 


CHAPTER  I 

WORDS  FORMED  BY  ATTACHING  A  SUFFIX  TO 

COMPOUND  WORDS   (METHODS  OF  PARTS 

I  AND  IV  COMBINED) 

The  formation  of  words  by  the  addition  of  suffixes 
has  already  been  fully  treated  in  Part  I,  yet  there  is  one 
process  of  derivation  which  it  seemed  improper  to  treat 
so  early,  namely,  the  addition  of  suffixes  to  compound 
words,  even  though  the  treatment  of  the  suffixes,  their 
use,  and  their  meaning  is  the  same  as  when  added  to 
simple  words.  The  reason  that  these  words  have  been 
reserved  for  later  treatment  is  that  two  distinct  processes 
of  word-formation  are  at  work — first  composition,  or  the 
making  of  the  compound,  and,  later,  derivation,  or  the 
modifying  of  its  meaning.^  It  seemed  best,  therefore, 
to  postpone  the  treatment  of  the  words  to  be  studied  here 
until  the  formation  of  the  various  kinds  of  compound 
words  should  have  been  fully  explained.  Since,  as  has 
been  stated,  two  kinds  of  word-formation  are  involved 
in  these  cases,  these  words  will  be  treated  under  the  title 
of  hybrids. 

Even  including  everything,  there  are  not  many  forma- 
tions of  this  kind  in  Old  Provengal,  such  words  being 
generally  of  later  formation.-     The  Avords  that  are  found 

1  The  main  process  in  the  formation  of  hybrids,  is,  of  course,  deriva- 
tion. The  words  beginning  with  7ion  give  some  difficulty,  however. 
Non  has  throughout  this  work  been  treated  as  an  individual  word  rather 
than  as  a  prefix.  Yet  in  some  of  the  examples  studied  farther  on,  non 
seems  to  be  prefixed  to  a  word  already  possessing  a  suffix,  as  nonsavieza, 
and,  in  some  others,  non  and  the  suffix  seem  to  have  been  added  at  the 
same  time,  which,  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  prefix,  would  make  up  a 
parasyntheton. 

2  Cf.  the  lists  of  words  in  O.  and  in  Mod.  Prov.  given  in  the  Essais, 
beginning  on  pp.  65  and  67. 

577 


578  Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 

are  very  largely  nouns,  altiiough  there  are  a  few  adjectives 
formed  by  means  of  -AT  and  -OS.  Perhaps  the  common- 
est type  of  noun  is  that  derived  from  a  compound  verb, 
as,  for  example,  mantenemen,  mantenensa,  and  mantenedor 
from  mantener,  or  captenemen  and  captenensa  from  cap- 
tener,  but  there  are  also  many  nouns  derived  from  com- 
pound nouns.  Most  of  the  derived  words  are  abstracts, 
as  the  preponderance  of  the  suffixes  -AMEN,  -ANSA, 
-EZA,  -I A,  and  -TAT  would  clearly  show;  the  few  remain- 
ing words  generally  denote  the  agent  of  an  action. 

In  these  hybrid  formations,  the  usual  method  of  divid- 
ing the  examples  into  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  will  be 
followed.  These  are  the  main  divisions;  and  as  the  suffix 
is  the  part  that  gave  the  word  its  final  form,  each  one  of 
these  groups  will  be  subdivided  according  to  the  suffix 
employed. 

A.      NOUNS 

Words  in  -ADOR,  -EDOR,  -IDOR: 

cornamuzador ,^  bagpiper  cornamuza,  bagpipe 

maldizedor,  slanderer  maldire,  slander 
malfazedor  and  malfazeiritz,  evil-     malfar,  do  evil 

doer 

malvoledor,  ill-wisher  mal  voler,  wish  ill 

manlevador,  borrower  ynanlevar,  borrow 

mantenedor,  one  who  aids  mantener,  maintain 

Words  in  -AMEN,  -EMEN,  -IMEN: 

hewplazemen,  pleasure,  satisfaction  hen  plazer,^  please 

captenemen,  procedure  captener,  maintain 
machacolamen,  machicolation 

malazautimen,  insulting  speech  malazaut,  impolite 

1  This  word,  both  as  regards  its  usual  ending  in  -AIRE  and  its  for- 
mation on  a  noun,  has  been  treated  above  under  the  suflBx  -ADOR. 

*  Benplazer  is  not  found  written  as  one  word,  but  possibly  may  have 
been  so  written.  Cf.  be{n)fazer  below.  See  also  under  compound 
words,  p.  556. 


Hybrids 


579 


malmenamen,  ill-treatment 
mantenemen,  maintenance 
morfondemen,  glanders 
noncuramen,  indifference 


malmenar,  ill-treat 
mantener,  maintain 
morfondre,  chill 
non  curar,^  not  to  care 


Words  in  -ANSA,  -ENSA:  The  examples  here  are 
rather  numerous.  For  some  reason,  -ANSA  seems  to 
have  been  preferred  to  -AMEN  in  these  longer  formations. 


hefazensa,  well-doing 
henauransa,^  happiness 
benestaiisa,  comfort 
cajptenensa,  conduct 
cartenensa,  esteem 
desmantenensa,  abandonment 
loctenensa,  lieutenancy 
malanansa,  illness 
malvalensa,  depreciation 
malestansa,  discomfort 
malvolensa,  ill-will 
mantenensa,  maintenance 
noncalensa,  nonchalance 
noncrezensa,  disbelief 
7ionsabetisa,  ignorance 
nonsofertansa,      incapacity 

suffering 
versemhlansa,  probability 
viltenensa,  contempt 

Words  in -ARIA: 

forsenaria,  madness 
lodenensaria,  lieutenancy 


for 


befazer,  do  good 
benaurar,  make  happy 
benestar,^  comfort 
captener,  retain 
car  tener,*  hold  dear 
desmaniener,  abandon 
lodenen,^  lieutenant 
malanan,^  ill 
7nal  valer,  depreciate 
malestar,^  discomfort 
mal  voter,  wish  ill 
mantener,  maintain 
noncaler,  not  to  care 
non  crezer,^  not  to  believe 
nonsaber,  not  to  know 
non  sofertar,  not  to  suffer 

ver  sembtar,  seem  true 
viltener,  hold  vile 


forsenar,  rave 
loctenensa,  lieutenancy 


1  Noncurar  as  one  word  is  not  found,  but  may  have  been  formed  on 
the  analogy  of  noncaler. 

2  Found  also  as  bonauransa. 

3  Benestar  and  malestar  are  nouns,  but  probably  were  originally 
verbs. 

*  Cartener  as  one  word  was  probably  formed  on  the  analogy  of  viltener. 
See  Essais,  p.  66. 

s  Loctener  and  malanar  are  not  found  except  in  these  participial 
forms,  loctenen  being  used  as  a  noun. 

6  Noncrezer  as  a  single  word  is  not  found,  but  may  have  been  formed 
on  the  analogy  of  nonsaber. 


580 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


Words  in -ELA: 

quincanela,  delay  of  five  years 
granted  to  a  debtor  who  can 
explain  his  failure  to  pay 

Words  in  -EZA: 
malastrugueza,  misfortune 
noncertaneza,  uncertainty 
nonsavieza,  folly 

Words  in  -I A : 
bonomia,  good-nature 
prodomia,  probity 
profemnia,  probity 

Words  in  -lER: 
manobrier,  workman,  overseer 
milgranier,  f  pomegranate-tree 

Words  in  -IL: 
copmazil,  small  main  house 

Words  in  -OR: 
pretzfachor,  task-worker 

Words  in  -TAT: 
bonauretat,  good  fortune 
debonairilat ,  kindheartedness 
noMCorrowp«6/f'/aY/ incorruptibility 
nonmortaletat,  immortality 


quincan,  five  years 


malastruc,  unfortunate 
non  certan,^  uncertain 
7ion  savi,^  unwise 

bon  ome^ 

prodome,  honest  man 

profemna,  honest  woman 

man{a)obra,  manoeuvre 
mUgrana,  pomegranate 

capmas,  main  house 

pretzfach,  forfeit 

boiiaur,  good  fortune 
de  bon  aire,^  goodhearted  ? 
non  corrompable,  incorruptible 
nonmortal,  immortal 


1  Noncertaneza  and  nonsavieza  may,  of  course,  be  made  up  of  non 
used  as  prefix  and  the  nouns  *certaneza  and  savieza.  Certaneza  is  not 
found,  however,  and  the  formation  would  be  more  likely  to  be  a  para- 
syntheton  made  by  attaching  non  and  -EZA  at  the  same  time  to  certan. 
Savieza  exists,  however. 

2  *Bonome  probably  existed  as  a  single  word,  though  not  found. 
Cf.  the  Fr.  bonhomme,  also  the  Prov.  prodome  in  the  list. 

3  Not  found  as  one  word.  The  phrase  itself  may  be  a  borrowing 
from  Fr. 

*  The  formation  may  be  a  parasyntheton,  as  suggested  for  non- 
certaneza above.  Nonmortaletat  was  probably  formed,  however,  on 
nonmortal,  which  is  found,  and  noncorrompahletat  seems  to  be  just  like 
it,  and  possibly  an  imitation  of  it. 


t  Other  words  ending  in  -lER  are  cairavelhier  and  lauzimanier,  but 
the  formation  of  both  is  too  obscure  to  warrant  placing  them  in  the  above 
list.     Both  words  are  obscure  in  meaning  also. 


Hybrids 


581 


B.      ADJECTIVES 


Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  adjectives  beginning 
with  non,  in  which  cases  the  non  is  placed,  exactly  like  a 
prefix,  before  some  adjective  already  fully  formed,  there 
are  few  cases  that  it  would  be  possible  to  treat  here.  The 
suffix  -AT  is  the  one  most  commonly  attached  to  com- 
pound adjectives. 

-ADOR  is  found  in : 
mentavedor,  to  be  mentioned  mentaver,  mention 

-AN  is  found  in : 


catredian,  of  four  days 
meglogan,  middle 
mesacantan,  mass-saying 

-AT  is  in: 

aurpelat,  covered  with  tinsel 
bonaurat,  happy,  fortunate 
cambaterrat,^  dismounted 
malaurat,  unfortunate 

-lERin: 

capcazalier,  belonging  to  the  main 

house 
malparlier,  slanderous 
megloguier,  belonging  to  the 

middle  class 

-lUin: 

malgratiu,  improper 
rnalmescliu,  slanderous 

And -OS  in: 

bonauros,  fortunate,  happy 
malauros,  unfortunate 


catre  dias,  four  days 

meglog,  middle 

jnesa  cantar,  say  mass 


aurpel,  tinsel 
bonaur,  good  fortune 

malaur,  misfortune 


capcazal,  main  house 

mal  parlar,  slander 
megloc,  middle 


mal  grat,  ill-will 
malmesclar,  embroil 


bonaur,  good  fortune 
malaur,  misfortune 


1  Cambaterrat  appears  to  be  ouly  a  past  participle  of  cambaterrar, 
which,  however,  is  not  found.  Bonaurat  may  have  been  formed  in  the 
same  way. 


582  Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


C.     VERBS 


There  are  very  few  verbs  formed  in  this  way.     The 
following  are  examples : 

malcorar,  become  angry  malcor,  anger 

man(a)o6rar,  t  manoeuvre  man{a)ohra,  manoeuvre 

D.     ADVERBS 

There  are  several  interesting  examples  of  adverbs  formed 
by  adding  ,the  usual  suffix  -MEN(T)  to  peculiar  combina- 
tions of  words : 

mantenenmen,  now  mantenen,  now 

mentagudamen,^  especially 

prodomialmen,  with  probity  -prodomia,  probity 

senmariialmen,   on   every  St.  San  Martin,  St.  Martin 

Martin's  day 

1  From  a  combination  of  merit  agut,  held  in  mind  ? 


t    Another  word  that  might  be  placed  here  is  auranoar,  lunch, 
which  Thomas  (Essais,  p.  65)  derives  from  hora  nona  +ar. 


INDEXES 


INDEX  I 


PROVENgAL  SUFFIXES  AND  PREFIXES 

Alphabetical  List^ 
A.    SUFFIXES 


-ABLE,  270 

-AC,  forming  nouns,  18;  forming 

adjectives,  276 
-ADA,  forming  simple  nouns,  24; 

forming  parasyntheta,   526 
-ADAMEN,  374 
-ADARIA,  393 
-ADIER,  393 
-ADITZ,  35 

-ADOR,  forming  simple  nouns, 
36;  forming  simple  adjectives, 
280;  forming  parasyntheta, 
526;  forming  hybrids,  528, 
530 

-ADURA,  57 
-AIRADA,  398 
-AIRAL,  398 
-AIRAN,  402 
-AIRAR,  403 
-AIRATGE,  398 
-AIRE,  62 
-AIRET,  398 
-AIRIA,  398 
-AIRIER,  398 
-AIRITZ,  51 
-AIROL,  398 
-AIRON,  398 

1  In  this  list,  each  Prov.  form  is  given  separately.  Thus  the  three 
forms  -AMEN,  -EMEN,  and  -IMEN.  all  from  the  Lat.  MENTUM,  are 
listed  separately  in  their  proper  alphabetical  positions,  and  the  reference 
to  the  page  where  each  word-list  begins.  The  double  suffixes  also  are  listed 
alphabetically  here.  In  the  final  table,  on  the  other  hand,  such  suffixes 
as  the  group  -AIMEN,  -EMEX,  and  -IMEN,  becaiuse  treated  together  in 
the  book,  and  the  reference  is  to  the  page  where  they  are  studied  for  the 
first  time.     There  the  double  suflBxes  form  a  separate  list. 

585 


-AISER,  353 

-AL,  forming  nouns,  62;  forming 
adjectives,  67 

-ALATGE,  399 
-ALES,  395 
-ALEZA,  395 
-ALH,  70 
-ALHA,  77 
-ALHAR, 349 
-ALHON,  400 
-ALIER,  399 
-AM,  81 

-AMEN,  forming  simple  nouns, 
85;  forming  adverbs,  373; 
forming  parasyntheta,  527; 
forming  hybrids,  578 

-AMENTA,  109 

-AN,  forming  nouns,  110;  form- 
ing adjectives,  293;  forming 
hybrids,  581 

-ANA,  112 
-ANDIER,  400 

-ANH,  forming  nouns,  114;  form- 
ing adjectives,  295 

-ANH  A,  114 

-ANSA,  forming  simple  nouns, 
116;    forming  hybrids,  579 


586 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


-AR,  forming  nouns,  127;  form- 
ing adjectives,  296;  forming 
simple  verbs,  332;  forming 
parasyntheta,  504 

-AREL,  402 

-ARENC,  forming  nouns,  401; 
forming  adjectives,  403 

-ARES,  395 

-AREZA,  395 

-ARIA,  forming  simple  nouns, 
130;    forming  hybrids,  579 

-ART,  forming  nouns,  138;  form- 
ing adjectives,  297 

-AS,  140 

-ASA,  142 

-ASAR,  352 

-ASARIA,  401 

-ASIER,  401 

-ASIL,  401 

-ASTRE,  146 

-AT,  forming  simple  nouns,  147; 
forming  simple  adjectives, 
298;  forming  parasyntheta, 
527,  529;  forming  hybrids, 
581 

-ATGE,  forming  simple  nouns, 
155;  forming  parasyntheta, 
528 

-ATZ,  144 
-ATJT,  165 
-AZON, 165 

-EC,  forming  nouns,  21;  form- 
ing adjectives,  277 

-EDA,  170 
-EDITZ,  36 

-EDOR,  forming  nouns,  49; 
forming  adjectives,  282 

-EGAR,  354 
-EIA,  35 
-EIRITZ,  53 
-EISER,  353 


-EJAR,  forming  simple  verbs,  357; 
forming  parasyntheta,  522 

-EL,  forming  nouns,  171;  form- 
ing adjectives,  305 

-ELA,  580 

-ELH,  75 

-ELHAR,  349 

-EMEN,  103 

-EN,  305 

-ENA,  176 

-ENC,  forming  nouns,  178;  form- 
ing adjectives,  306 

-ENCA,  180 
-ENGA,  115 
-ENH,  115 
-ENHA,  115 
-ENJA,  115 

-ENSA,  forming  simple  nouns, 
124;    forming  hybrids,  579 

-ERNA,  181 

-Es,  forming  nouns,  181;  form- 
ing adjectives,  309 

-ESA,   185 

-ESC,  -ESCA,  forming  nouns,  186; 
forming  adjectives,  310 

-ET,  forming  nouns,  188;  form- 
ing adjectives,  311 

-ETGE,  164 

-ETZ,  145 

-EZA,  forming  simple  nouns,  195; 
forming  hybrids,  580 

-EziR,  forming  simple  verbs,  363; 
forming  parasyntheta,  523 

-EZON, 167 

-lA,  forming  simple  nouns,  201; 

forming  hybrids,  580 
-lAR,  366 
-IBLE,  275 

-ic,  forming  nouns,  22;  forming 

adjectives,  277 
-IDA,  28 
-IDAMEN,  374 


Index 


587 


-IDOR,  forming  nouns,  51;  form- 
ing adjectives,  285 

-IDURA,  61 

-lER,  forming  simple  nouns,  207; 
forming  adjectives,  313;  form- 
ing parasyntheta,  528;  forming 
hybrids,  580-81 

-lERA,  229 
-IFICAR,  367 
-IGAR,  354 

-IL,  forming  nouns,  67;  forming 
adjectives,  292 

-ILHA,  80 
-ILHAR,  349 

-iM,  83 

-IMEN,  106 

-IN,  forming  nouns,  234;  form- 
ing adjectives,  318 

-iNA,  forming  simple  nouns,  236; 
forming  hybrids,  528 

-INAR,  368 

-ION,  forming  nouns,  238;  form- 
ing adjectives,  320 

-IR,  forming  simple  verbs,  346; 
forming  parasyntheta,  517 

-IS,  forming  nouns,  143;  form- 
ing adjectives,  320 

-ISA,  143 

-ISME,  239 

-isTA,  239 

-IT,  forming  nouns,  239;  form- 
ing simple  adjectives,  302; 
forming  parasyntheta,  530 

-ITGE,  164 

-iTZ,  145 

-lu,  forming  simple  adjectives, 
322;    forming  hybrids,  581 


-ivoL,  275 

-IZAR,  371 

-izoN,  167 

-OA,  239 

-DC,  forming  nouns,  22;  form- 
ing adjectives,  279 

-OIRA,  240 

-oiSER,  353 

-OL,  forming  simple  nouns,  240; 
forming  adjectives,  324;  form- 
ing parasyntheta,  528 

-GLEN,  323 
-OLH,  76 
-OLHAR,  349 

-ON,  243 

-ONAR,  370 
-ONHA,  116 

-OR,  forming  simple  nouns,  252; 

forming  hybrids,  580 
-OS,  forming  simple  adjectives, 

324;   forming  hybrids,  581 
-OT,  255 
-OTGE, 329 

-TAT,  forming  simple  nouns,  257; 
forming  hybrids,  580 

-uc,  forming  nouns,  23;    form- 
ing adjectives,  279 
-UDA,  29;  34 

-UDAMEN,  374 
-ULHA,  77 

-UM,  83 

-URA,  forming  simple  nouns,  261 ; 

forming  parasyntheta,  528 
-UT,  330 
-UTZ,  144 


B.     PREFIXES 


A-,  forming  simple  verbs,  412; 
forming  simple  nouns,  463; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta,  in 
combination  with  the  suffix  -ar: 
formation  on  nouns,  504;  forma- 


tions on  adjectives,  515;  forma- 
tion on  verbs,  517;  forming 
verbal  parasyntheta  in  combina- 
tion with  the  suffix  -ir:  forma- 
tions on  nouns,  518;  formations 


588 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


on  adjectives,  519;  forming 
verbal  parasyntheta  in  combina- 
tion with  -EJAR,  522;  with 
-EGAR  and  with  -ezir,  523; 
forming  nominal  parasyntheta 
in  combination  with  the  suffix 
-AMEN,  527;   with  -ol,  528. 

AB-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
419;  forming  verbal  parasyn- 
theta, 507. 

ANTI-,  forming  nouns,  464. 

BES-,  BIS-,  forming  verbs,  419; 
forming  nouns,  465. 

CON-  (com-),  forming  simple 
verbs,  419;  forming  simple 
nouns,  466;  forming  simple 
adjectives,  482;  forming  verbal 
parasyntheta  in  combination 
with  -AR,  507;  with  -ejar,  522; 
forming  nominal  parasyntheta, 
528. 

CONTRA-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
421;  forming  simple  nouns,  467; 
forming  simple  adjectives,  482; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta, 
507;  in  a  nominal  par asyntheton, 
526. 

DAVAN-,  forming  nouns,  468; 
forming  adjectives,  482. 

DE-,  forming  simple  verbs,  423; 
forming  simple  nouns,  469;  form- 
ing simple  adjectives,  483;  form- 
ing verbal  parasyntheta  in  com- 
bination with  -AR,  507;  with 
-EGAR,  523;  forming  nominal 
parasyntheta,  527;  forming  ad- 
jectival parasyntheta,  529. 

DENAN-,  forming  nouns,  469; 
forming  adjectives,  482. 

DES-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
425;  forming  simple  nouns, 
469;  forming  simple  adjectives, 
483;    forming    verbal    parasyn- 


theta in  combination  with  the 
suffix -ar:  formations  on  nouns, 
507;  formations  on  adjectives, 
516;  forming  verbal  parasyn- 
theta in  combination  with  -ir, 
518;  with  -ejar,  522;  forming 
nominal  parasyntheta,  527. 

EN  (em-),  forming  simple 
verbs,  431;  forming  simple 
nouns,  470;  forming  simple 
adjectives,  484;  forming  verbal 
parasyntheta  in  combination 
with  the  suffix  -ar:  formations 
on  nouns,  509;  formations  on 
adjectives,  516;  forming  verbal 
parasyntheta  in  combination 
with  -ir:  formations  on  nouns, 
519;  formations  on  adjectives, 
520;  forming  verbal  parasyn- 
theta in  combination  with  -ejar, 
522;  with  -ezir,  523;  forming 
nominalparasyntheta,  527 ;  form- 
ing adjectival  parasyntheta,  529. 

ENDE-,  forming  nouns,  472. 

ENTRE-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
438;  forming  simple  nouns,  473; 
forming  simple  adjectives,  485; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta, 
512. 

ES-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
440 ;  forming  simple  nouns,  473 ; 
forming  simple  adjectives,  485; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta  in 
combination  with  the  suffix 
-ar:  formations  on  nouns,  512; 
formations  on  adjectives,  516; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta  in 
combination  with  the  suffix  -ir: 
formations  on  nouns,  519;  for- 
mations on  adjectives,  521; 
forming  nominal  parasyntheta, 
526-28;  forming  adjectival 
parasyntheta,  530-32. 


Index 


580 


FOR-,  forminp;  simple  verbs, 
446;  forming  simple  nouns,  475; 
forming  verbal  paras,yntheta, 
514. 

MES-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
447;  forming  simple  nouns,  475. 

OLTRA-  (oTJTRA-),  forming 
simple  verbs,  448. 

PER-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
448;  forming  simple  nouns,  476; 
forming  simple  adjectives,  486; 
forming  verbal  parasyntlieta, 
514;  forming  a  nominal  para-  ' 
syntheton,  526. 

POR-,  PRO-,  forming  simple 
verbs,  450. 

PRE-,  forming  simple  nouns, 
475. 

RE-,  forming  simple  verbs,  " 
451;  forming  simple  nouns,  475; 
forming  verbal  parasyntheta  in 
combination  with  the  suffix  -ar: 
formations  on  nouns,  514;  for- 
mations on  adjectives,  517;  form- 


ing verbal  parasyntheta  in  com- 
bination with  -iR,  521. 

REIHE-,  forming  simple  nouns, 
477;  forming  verbal  parasyn- 
theta, 514. 

so-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
,456 

SOBRE-,  forming  simple  verbs, 
456;  forming  simple  nouns,  477; 
forming  simple  adjectives,  486; 
forming  adjectival  parasyntheta, 
529-30. 

SOS-,  SOST-,  SOTZ-,  SOZ-,  form- 
ing simple  verbs,  458;  forming 
simple  nouns,  479. 

SUB-,    forming    simple    adjec-  • 
tives,  488.  '  '     ■ 

TRAS-  (trans-,  TRES-),  form- 
ing simple  verbs,  460;  forming 
simple  nouns,  479;  forming- 
simple  adjectives,  488;  forming 
verbal  parasyntheta,  514;  form-- 
ing  nominal  parasyntheta,  526, 
528. 


INDEX  II 


LATIN^  SUFFIXES  AND  PREFIXES 
A.     SUFFIXES 


-ACCUS,  IS 

-ACEARE, 352 

-ACEUS,  -ACE A,  110 

-ACLUM,  70 

-ACULARE, 349 

-ALITTM,  -ALIA,  72 

-ALIS,  62 

-AMEN,  81 

-ANEUS,  -ANEA,  114 

-ANTIA,  -ENTIA,  116 

-ANUS,  -ANA,  110 

-ARE,  332 

-ARIS,  127 

-ARIUS,  -ARIA,  -ARIUM, 

-ASTER,  146 

-ATI  CUM,  155 

-ATTUS,  147 

-ATUS,  147 

-BILIS,  270 

-ECCLTS,  IS 
-ECLUS,  70 
-ELLUS,  170 
-ENSIS,  181 
-EOLUS,  -lOLUS,  240 
-ETUM, 170 

-HARD,  13S 

-lA,  201 
-lARE,  366 
-ICARE,  354 

-iccus,  22 


207 


*-iciRE,  363 
-icius,  143 

-ICLUS,  70 
-ICULARE,  349 
-IDIARE,  357 
-IFICARE,  367 

-iLis,  67 

-IMEN,  83 

-INA,  236 
-INC.,  178 
-lONE,  238 
-iscus,  186 
-isME,  239 
-issA,  185 
-isTA,  239 

-ITIA,  195 
-ITTITS,  18S 

-ITUS,  239 
-ivus,  322 

-LENTUS,  323 
-MENTUM,  85 

-occus,  22 

-OCULARE,  349 

-ONE,  243 

-ONEA,  116 

-OR,  243 
-ORIA,  240 
-osus,  324 
-OTicus,  329 

-SCERE,  353 


'  Including  a  fow  sufflxos  of  Gormanic  origin.  In  this  list,  the  roferonces 
are  always  to  the  page  whore  the  Prov.  development  of  the  Lat.  sufBx  Is 
treated  for  the  first  time  and  its  history  studied. 

590 


Index 


591 


-TA  (feminine  of  -Tus),  24 

-TAS,  257 

-Ticius,  35 

-TIONE,  165 

-TOR,  36 

-TORIUS,  280 

-TRIX,  51 

-TURA,  57 


AB-,  419 
AD-,  412 
ANTI-,  464 

BIS-,  419 
CON-,  419 

CONTRA-,  421 

DE-,  423 
DIS-,  425 

EX-,  440 

FORIS-,  446 

IN-  (iM-),  431 
INTER-,  438 


B. 


-uccus,  23 

-UCLUS,  70 

-ULUS,  240 

-UMEN,  83 
-TJRA,  261 

-UTus,  330 
-UTJS,  239 

PREFIXES 

MINUS-,  447 

PER-,  448 

PRAE-,  475 

PRO-,  450 

RE-,  451 
RETRO-,  477 

SUB-,  456 
SUBTUS-,  458 
SUPER-,  456 

TRANS-,  460 
ULTRA-,  448 


INDEX  III 


INDEX  TO  WORDS  TREATED  ONLY  IN  THE  NOTES 

(The  reference  is  practically  always  to  one  of  the  daggered  notes.  The 
few  obscure  words  studied  in  the  text  itself  instead  of  in  the  notes  are  listed 
in  this  index  with  an  asterisk  beside  them.) 


abauzar,  419 
abelha,  75 
abivernar,  419 
acolhir,  419 
aconoiser,  418 
acorre,  418 
acreire,  418 
acreiser,  418 
adamar,  418 
adormir,  419 
adornamen,  103 
adrech,  481 
adulteran,  294 
afranher,  418 
agenolhar,  506 
aiglentina,  237 
aigonenc,*  180 
aizin,  320 
ajazer,  418 
ajurar,  417 
albespina,  554 
albuesca,  187 
alcavot,  256 
amable,  273 
amador,  283 
amaridous,  571 
ambolelh,  75 
ametre,  418 
amola,  547 
anadilha,  76 
angelot,  256 
anoal,  67 
anoirir,  419 


anticrist,  464 
antifrasis,  464 
antithesis,  464 
antitheton,  464 
anulhar,  417 
aombrar,  506 
aondansa,  124 
apaiser,  418 
aparensa,  126 
aplaisamen,  89 
apostolat,  149 
apregar,  417 
aprendre,  418 
aranhon,  249 
arazonablamen,  481 
arcabot,  256 
arenier,  226 
arestol,  242 
arraari,  129 
armier,  222 
arnaudenc,  180 
arquidiquenat,  527 
arquier,  217 
arsura,  263 
artelh,  75 
arvina,  237 
asezer,  418 
asonar,  417 
asteza,  201 
atemprar,  417 
atener,  418 
atraire,  418 
atrasajadamen,  376 


592 


Index 


593 


auranoar,  582 
aurelha,  75 
aurelhier,  223 
aurfres,  556 
auria,  203 
auriban,  554 
auriflama,  554 
auriflor,  554 
auriola,  242 
auripel,  554 
austarda,  556 
auzelet,  392 
auzil,  70 

aversier,  218;   317 
avestruz,  556 
aviron,  249 
avocada,  24 
avoquejar,  362 

bagastel  (bavastel),  175 
balaresc,  187 
baptisteri,  129 
barbajolh,  559 
barral,  67 
batum,  84 

bavastel  (bagastel),  175 
bergantina,  237 
bertresca,  187 
bestiari,  129 
bestic,  22 
bestiola,  242 
bezonh,  466 
biais,  287 
biroart,  140 
boacca,  20 
bodoison,  249 
bolia,  203 
borbolhador,  49 
bordon,  249 
bosin,  235 
botin,  235 
bozina,  237 
braguier,  226 


bredola,  242 
brefania,  204 
bretol,  242 
breviari,  129 
brucida,  29 
brufol,  242 
bruguiera,  231 
bugada,  34 
bugadier,  393 
buzat,  148 

cabas,  141 
cabiscol,  559 
cabrefolh,  559 
cabrotin,  235 
cairat,  151 
cairaton,  249 
cairavelhier,  211;  580 
cairelet,  392 
calcanh,  114 
calendier,  224 
calquiera,  231 
cambaterrar,  573 
camilhada,  34 
camola,  243 
campoliera,*  231,  558 
canal,  67,  290 
canilha,  76 
canin,  319 
can-plor,  561 
canut,  331 
caorcenc,  180 
capafoc,  557 
capel,  175 
capelan.  111 
caplei,  545 
capsola,  243 
carach,  21 
cardairina,  237 
caritos,  329 
carpentier,  204,  218 
carriaton,  249 
cartolai'i,  129 


594 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


casanh,  114 
casida,  29 
caslar,  129 
castelan,  111 
castelet,  392 
caupol,  243 
caustda,  29 
cavalhier,  217 
cavesca,  187 
cavilha,  76 
cavilhar,  351 
cazerna,*  181 
celhier,  222 
celitz,  145 
cenador,  56 
Centura,  263 
cert  an,  295 
cervigal,  67,  290 
chairic,  22 
cimiteri,  129 
citoal,  67 
civiera,  234 
clavel,  175 
clergal,  67 
clergat,  149 

clincador,  49 

cobeitos,  328 

cobezejar,  361 

cobezetat,  260 

cobresel,  565 

cocuda,  34 

co(h)eiritz,  466 

colar,  128 

colegiat,  304 

colilonc,  567 

colonia,  204 

colpable,  273 

coltura,  263 

comaire,  466 

comensar,  420 

comes  (compes),  183 

comesura,  263 

comordre,  420 


companhon,  251 
compareiser,  420 
compasar,  420 
compes  (comes),  183 
complazer,  420 
compromisari,  129 
comtat,  149 
concagar,  420 
concasar,  420 
concoa,  466 
concreire,  420 
condecen,  482 
configurar,  420 
confinar,  507 
confraire,  466 
confrontar,  507 
congitar,  420 
conjauzir,  421 
conoiser,*  354 
conortar,  420 
conrezari,  129 
conselhier,  217 
conservable,  273 
consiransa,  124 
consolat,  149 
consolida,  29 
contrari,  129 
contribular,  420 
convenensier,  226 
coragola,  557 
coral,  67 
coraUiar,  350 
corbable,  273 
corbelh,  75 
cordolh,  559 
corgozon,  246 
corisa,  144 
cornelhat,  155 
corniera,  234 
corogada,  34 
coronal,  67 
coronamen,  103 
corporen,  323 


Index 


595 


cortes,  309 
costura,  263 
creat,  148 
crebasa,  143 
creisensa,  126 
crestian,  112 
cristeri,  129 
crozeia,  204 
crual,  290 
cujolar,  128 
culhier,  223 
culveta,  195 
curable,  273 
darbon,  249 
datari,  129 
decantar,  424 
decazer,  425 
decorre,  425 
defranher,  425 
defraudar,  424 
defucha,  548 
deglotir,  425 
deimari,  129 
delinquensa,  126 
demedir,  425 
demenir,  425 
dementir,  425 
demerir,  425 
dene  jar,  522 
denhitos,  329 
denhtat,  259 
denomnar,  424 
dental,  67 
dentat,  304 
dentelh,  75 
denzic,  22 
depaiser,  425 
dependensa,  126 
depenher,  425 
depregar,  424 
derezemson,  251 
derire,  425 
derompre,  425 


descenher,  430 
desclaure,  430 
descobrir,  431 
descordar,  429 
descreire,  430 
desgitar,  429 
deslegar,  429 
deslugar,  429 
despareiser,  *  354 
despendre,  430 
desplazer,  430 
dessebrar,  429 
destendre,  430 
destermenar,  429 
destorbar,  429 
destorser,  430 
destrenher,  425,  430 
destrier,  218 
desvari,  129 
devogar,  424 
dezacordan,  295 
dezapedit,  492 
dezegadamen,  376 
dezempastrar,  495 
dezirable,  273 
doaredor,  51 
doari,  129 
doblier,  223 
doloirar,  335 
domerdeu,  561 
donatari,  129 
donselet,  392 
dormidor,  56 
dozilh,  76 
dragol,  243 
dureza,  199 
durtat,  259 

eboric,  22 
ebraic,  278 
ebrios,  328 
egot,  256 
eisac,  20 


596 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


eisalot,  256 
eisigar,  357 
eisintaria,  133 
eissugai',  442 
elecrum,  S4 
elephantin,  319 
embeure,  437 
emblidar,  436 
embonilh,  76 
embut,  470 
emendazon,  167 
empachar,  436 
empegar,  436 
empeltar,  436 
empendre,  437 
empenher,  436 
einperairitz,  52 
emplecha,  470 
eraplo(i)rar,  436 
emprenhar,  516 
emprumtar,  436 
enamorar,  436 
encantairitz,  282 
encantar,  436 
encantar,  516 
encarnar,  512 
encobolar,  512 
encriminar,  436 
encrivelhat,  153 
endeclinable,  273 
endevezeiritz,  53 
endire,  437 
endomenjat,  470 
endormir,  437 
endoscar,  436 
endurar,  436 
enebriar,  436 
enescar,  436 
enfasial,  291 
enfecir,  437 
enferir,  437 
enficiar,  436 
enformar,  436 


enfranher,  436 
engarzimen,  103 
engeneiritz,  53 
engenoir,  437 
engerir,  437 
engres,  485 
enlasar,  436 
enlumenar,  436 
enmetre,  437 
enombrar,  436 
enortar,  436 
enseguivolmen,  276 
ensensible,  485 
ensertar,  436 
entalugar,  512 
entauscar,  512 
entenher,  436 
enterpretamen,  103 
enteruscle,  473 
entorrolhar,  438 
entrach,  470 
entrarmas,  473 
entrebescar,  439 
entrecluire,  440 
entredire,  440 
entremetre,  440 
entrerompre,  440 
entretraire,  440 
entreval,  473 
entrevelh,  474 
entrevic,  474 
envers,  470 
envit,  378 
envocar,  436 
envoiar,  436 
equin,  319 
eranh,  114 
erbolari,  129 
eretic,  22 
eretier,  226 
erransa,  124 
esbaudanar,  445 
esbeure,  445 


Index 


597 


escafinhon,  475 
escaironar,  371 
escaldar,  516 
escalfar,  444 
escalh,  73 
escalier,  224 
escalme,  474 
escanh,  escanha,  114 
escantir,  446 
escaperlari,  129 
escapitar,  445 
escapla,  474 
escarar,  514 
escaravach,  21 
escarchar,  445 
escarir,  446 
escarneiser,  354 
escarnir,  446 
escartat,*  155 
escasa,  143 
escautridamen,  377 
escavin,  235 
esclarar,  516 
esclaure,  445 
escluza,  474 
escodenc,  180 
escodre,  445 
escoire,  445 
escorre,  445 
escolilha,  81 
escombre,*  474 
escomenjar,  444 
escorchar,  445 
escorjar,  444 
escorporar,  445 
escosor,  254 
escosura,  263 
escremir,  446 
escriptori,  129 
escudela,  175 
escumergar,  444 
escurar,  344 
esdec,*  474 


esdire,  445 
esforsan,  295 
esfranher,  445 
esglai,  474 
esgola,  475 
esgotalh,  80 
esguiat,  475 
esguilhada,  34 
eslugar,  445 
esluzir,  446 
esmagar,  445 
esmaginar,  445 
esmair,  446 
esmamen,  374 
esmendar,  445 
esmerilh,  73 
esmetre,  445 
esmeutir,  446 
esmolre,  445 
espachar,  444 
espanchar,  445 
espardenha,  115 
esparnir,  446 
espectar,  445 
espeluca,  475 
espendre,  445 
espensar,  445 
espereiser,  354,  445 
espezegar,  356 
espil,  70 
espiralh,  73 
esplechable,  273 
esplechamen,  96 
espoizon,  474 
espol,  243 
esponton,  249 
esquiera,  234 
esquilansia,  204 
esquivir,  347,  446 
esraigar,  445 
estadal,  67 
estafizagria,  556 
estalsin,  235 


598 


Word-Formation  in  PROVENgAL 


estalvar,  445 
est  am,  82 
estamenha,  115 
estanh,  114 
estat,  155 
estavanir,  521 
estelat,  304 
estenher,  445 
esterzer,  445 
estibart,  140 
estival,  67 
estobezir,  366 
estocfich,  559 
estonar,  445 
estornir,  446 
estram,  82 
estrangir,  446 
estrasar,  353 
estrechura,  263,  264 
estreisar,  445 
estrenhedor,  51 
estrenher,  445 
estrepejar,  362 
estric,  22 
estril,  293 
estrilha,  76 
estrilhar,  351 
estropaci,  169 
estruire,  445 
estuire,  445 
esvelh,  474 
esvigorar,  445 
evescat,  149 
examinador,  284 
excelensa,  126 

fachamen,  374 
fachon,  247 
fachor,  254 
fachura,  263 
fadia,  204 
faichal,  291 
faichon,  247 


faisenada,  34 
faisola,  243 
faison,  251 
falguiera,  231 
falsari,  129 
falveta,  195 
famelhos,  329 
familhar,  128 
famolan,  295 
faraon,  249 
fasial,  291 
fastadamen,  376 
fatonier,  388 
fegalada,  34 
felonia,  385 
feminal,  290 
femoras,  141 
femorejar,  362 
fenier,  224 
ferias,  142 
ferlada,  34 
fermar,  344 
ferrada,  34 
ferramen,  103 
ferrias,  142 
ferrier,  217 
fersios,  329 
fertat,  259 
festal,  290 
final,  67 
fiviera,  234 
flain,  235 
flaon,  249 
flasada,  34 
flauzon,  249 
flechezir,  366 
floisina,  237 
fodier,  218 
folataria,  133 
folelh,  75 
foliot,  257 
fongol,  243 
forescapiar,  447 


Index 


599 


framola,  243 
fremezir,  366 
frior,  253 
frontal,  67 
fruchier,  22.5 
furon,  246 
fustier,  217 

galopcha,  23 
gamada,  34 
ganguil,  70 
garach,  21 
garanhon,  246 
garavasada,  34 
garlegar,  357 
gauzinhal,  291 
gavach,  21 
gavarrier,  226 
gaveda,  170 
gavenc,  180 
gavia,  204 
gavier,  226 
gazal,  67 
genisa  144 
gerlet,  195 
gevelina,  237 
glanier,  218 
glotonia,  385 
gofon,  249 
golicios,  326 
gorbilh,  76 
gorgolhon,  246 
gorgolhonar,  343 
gormet,  195 
gornilha,  76 
gostable,  273 
gracios,  327 
grafan,  295 
gramatge,  159 
granataria,  394 
graulador,  56 
gravable,  273 
gravaironar,  343 


gregueta,  195 
grifol,  243 
grifon,  246 
grizier,  226 
grolet,  195 
giiilhalmenc,  180 
guionet,  195 
guiscos,  328 

[The  initial  h  is  nowhere  used 
in  this  work.  See  under  the 
respective  vowels.] 

imnari,  129 
importable,  273 
incendiari,  129 
indigensa,  126 
interpretable,  273 
intralhas,  79 
ipocras,  142 
iraisensa,  126 
iraiser,*  354 
ivernal,  67 
ivros,  328 

jaina,  237 
jauzion,  320 
joglar,  128 
jovensa,  126 
jutjat,  151 
lacrimal,  291 
ladesa,  199 
lagot,  257 
laironisa,  144 
lampeza,  201 
lampezier,  223 
langueiser,  354 
lanier,  218 
lansier,  218 
lanterna,  181 
lanternier,  218 
lardiera,  234 
laset,*  194 
lauron,  249 


600 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


lauzimanier,  580 
lavador,  56 
leconia,  385 
legor,  253 
legum,  84 
leial,  67 
lendorela,  175 
lenier,  224 
letanha,  114 
letril,  70 
leudari,  129 
leudor,  254 
leugier,  317 
levestic,  22 
liam,  82 
liamen,  103 
Hart,  297 
liazon,  167 
librari,  129 
limasa,  143 
lindar,  128 
lingot,  257 
lipaudes,  184 
lipos,  328 
liurazon,  167 
logadaria,  393 
logal,  67 
logazon,  167 
lombart,  140 
lonhdan,  295 
lopin,  235,  319 
lugor,  253 
luminar,  128 
luzerna,*  181 

macarel,  176 
machacol,  564 
machaferre,  564 
machota,  257 
macleia,  35 
madier,  223 
madiera,  234 
maduretat,  260 


maestral,  67 
maestrejan,  295 
maial,  67 
maimamen,  373 
mainadier,  393 
mainat,  155 
mainatge,  159 
mairam,  82 
mairenal,  291 
mairilhier,  218 
maisnier,  218 
malefici,  169 
malhol,  243 
malicios,  327 
malnet,  193 
malsaben,  571 
maltat,  259 
malvais,  287 
mandadier,  219 
mandat,  151 
mandatari,  129 
mandil,  69 
manelha,  75 
manganel,  176 
mangonier,  218 
maniera,  234 
mantel,  176 
marcezir,  366 
mares,  309 
maresc,  187 
mar  in,  319 
martel,  176 
martelet,  392 
martinet  (a),  193 
masapan,  560 
masmudina,  237 
matafiloza,  565 
matalas,  142 
matalot,  257 
matras,  142 
matrisa,  144 
mazelhier,  218 
mecinal,  67 


Index 


601 


medalhon,  248 
meijan,  mejan,  112,  295 
melar,  128 
melhorazon,  167 
mentastre,  146 
menuda,  34 
meravelha,  75 
mercadoira,  57 
mercairol,  399 
mercan,  112 
mercelhar,  350 
mercenejar,  362 
mercenier,  316 
meric,  22 
merlet,  193 
mescat,  155 
mesion,  238 
mesor,  254 
metjamen,  103 
metoa,  239 
mezac,  20 
mezerin,  320 
mezol,  243 
milhargos,  328 
milier,  224 
minhart,  140 
minhot,  257 
mintalha,  79 
mirable,  274 
miralh,  73 
mistura,  263 
moderamen,  103 
moduriera,  234 
moflet,  313 
mojol,  245 
monacal,  291 
moquet,  193 
morat,  155 
moresc,  185 
mortalici,  396 
mortapaga,  554 
morvel,  176 
mosclalh,  73 


mosniera,  234 
mostazia,  204 
mostrazon,  167 
mozaic,  278 
mudazon,  167 
mulin,  319 
multiplicable,  273 
munimen,  107 

nabeta,  193 
nadel,  176 
naritz,  145 
naufrach,  556 
iiaujol,  243 
nautonier,  218 
nazitort,  567 
necesitos,  329 
neciera,  234 
nersum,  84 
niblan,  112 
niola,  243 
nizaic,  278 
noiritz,  145 
nominat,  151 
noncalen,  571 
noveletat,  260 
novena,  176 
nozible,  275 
nozol,  243 

oblador,  45 
obrador,  45 
olfatz,  145 
oliveda,  170 
onchura,  263 
onorificablamen,  373 
opidan,  112 
optat,  151 
orat,  151 
orazon,  167 
orbacha,  21 
ordejar,*  361 
ordenari,  129 


602 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


orredisa,  144 
orrezetat,  260 
orsin,  319 
orsol,  243 
ortolan,  112 
ostada,  34 
ostilha,  81 
otonenc,  180 
ovelha,  75 
ovin,  319 

pabalhon,  248 
pactizar,  372 
padoenc,  179 
pageza,  201 
pairenal,  291 
pairol,  243 
pairon,  245 
paironal,  291 
paiseron,  399 
palaudia,  204 
palotejar,  362 
palpel(a),  176 
pampol,  243 
panatori,  129 
pancogola,  560 
pancosier,  560 
panetier,  402 
panhota,  257 
panisa,  144 
papiejar,  362 
parafolha,  563 
parec,  22 
pareiser,*  354 
parelh,  75 
parpalhon,  248 
parran,  112 
parsan,  112 
parson,  251 
particuladamen,  376 
pastitz,  145 
parvol,  243 
pasible,  275 


pastel,  176 
patriarcat,  149 
pauquetat,  260 
pavensa,  126 
pazimen,  109 
pechairier,  399 
pechiera,  234 
pecorin,  319 
pedas,  141 
pedasar,  353 
pedilhar,  128 
pegar,  128 
pegola,  243 
pegulhiera,  234 
peirin,  319 
peitral,  67 
pejorar,  344 
pelac,  20 
pelat,  155 
pelejar,  362 
pelhier,  218 
pelos,  327 
pelota,  257 
penal,  290 
penchura,  263 
penos,  327 
pensazon,  167 
percorre,  450 
perdezon,  167 
perdigal,  67 
perdurable,  486 
perdurar,  449 
perfazable,  486 
perfecir,  450 
pergam,  82 
perilhan,  295 
perjurar,  449 
perlegir,  450 
permoure,  450 
permudar,  449 
pernochar,  449 
peroferta,  476 
perpensar,  449 


Index 


603 


perplazer,  450 
perponcha,  476 
perpreza,  476 
perquerir,  450 
perscrutar,  449 
pertener,  450 
pertrach,  476 
pertraire,  450 
pervenser,  450 
pervezer,  450 
pervezion,  238 
pervist,  486 
pesari,  129 
pesquier,  222 
pestel,  176 
pesuc,  23 
pezan,  295 
pezelhar,  128 
pezonia,  204 
piadar,  344 
pibol,  243 
pibot,  256 
picape,  564 
picompan,  565 
picota,  256 
pifart,  297 
pilastre,  146 
pilorel,  176 
pilozel(a),  176 
piloric,  22 
pimpernela,  176 
pineda,  170 
pinganada,  34 
pitafle,  565 
plaziblamen,  373 
plenega,  554 
plentados,  329 
plentat,  259 
pletoneda,  170 
plorivolmen,  373 
plovina,  237 
plumos,  327 
poblazon,  167 


poblejar,  363 
pobolar,  128 
podisa,  144 
poiregos,*  329,  356 
polan,  112 
polgar,  128 
poller,  218 
polveros,  327 
ponchura,  263 
ponhador,  45 
ponsejar,  363 
ponsUhar,  351 
posesorl,  129 
preconizar,  372 
predlcatori,  129 
preemlnensa,  126 
prelatlon,  170 
prenhat,  151 
prentalha,  79 
preparatorl,  129 
presbiteral,  291 
prezencialmen,  373 
primat,  149 
prlncol,  554 
proable,  273 
proceslonarl,  129 
procurar,  451 
procuration,  170 
procuratorl,  129 
prodomialmen,  373 
proestrat,  155 
profechan,  295 
profetlsa,  144 
pro(h)iblr,  451 
prolongar,  451 
prometre,  451 
promover,  451 
prononclat,  151 
propdan,  295 
proprlari,  129 
punais,  287 
purela,  35 
purtat,  259 


604 


Word-Formation  in  PRovENgAL 


questionari,  129 
quinquilharia,  133 
quintinenc,*  180 

raimondenc,*  180 
ranquejar,  361 
reviscolar,  514 
revolinar,  514 
rudela,  176 
rustat,*  155 

sagrier,  222 
sancnos,  328 
saumier,  218 
semenazon,  167 
semensa,  126 
serralh,  73 
sextil,  293 
soberna,  *  181 
sobransa,  124 
sobrecilh,  478 
sobrecreiser,  458 
sobrenadar,  457 
sobrendre,  *  456 
sobreondar,  457 
sobrescriure,  458 
sobrestendre,  458 
sobrevenir,  458 
sofranher,  *  456 
sofrensa,  126 
solelh,  75 
solombrar,  573 
somelh,  75 
somelhos,  328 
sordelhar,  351 
soscire,*  459 
sosfoire,*  459 
sosjazer,*  459 
sosplantar,*  459 
sostcavar,*  458 
sostenensa,  125 
sosterrar,*  459 
sostmonir,  458 
sostraire,*  459 
soteiran  (sotran),  295 


sotlar,  128 

sotran  (soteiran),  295 
sotzescriure,*  459 
sotzintrar,*  459 
sotzpauzar,*  459 
sotzselhier,  218 
sozmover,  458 

tantolhar,  351 

tebezir,  366 

tenchura,  263 

termenable,  273 

terrier,  226 

tersan,  295 

tortezir,  366 

tragitar,  460 

transfigar,  460 

transfigurar,  460 

transforar,  460 

transformar,  460 
transglotir,  460 
translatar,  460 
transmudar,  460 
transnomnar,  460 
transplantar,  460 
transportar,  460 
trapenar,  460 
trascolar,  460 
trasluzer,  460 
traversar,  460 
trefart,  297 
tronson,  251 

unial,  291 
uzurier,  218 

vaiselet,  392 
vaiselh,  75 
vavasor,  559 
ventrelh,  75 
verais,  287 
verenos,  328 
vertelh,  74 
vestiari,  129 
vinhier,  222 


TABLE  OF  SUFFIXES  AND  PREFIXES 


SHOWING  THE  ORDER  IN  WHICH  THEY  HAVE 
BEEN  STUDIED 

A.    SUFFIXES 


Forming  Nouns 
-AC,  -EC,  -ic,  -oc,  -uc,  18 

-ADA,  -IDA,  -UDA,  (-EIA),  24 

-ADITZ,  -EDITZ,  35 

-ADOR,  -EDOR,  -IDOR,   (-AIRITZ, 

-EIRITZ,  51),  36 
-ADURA,  -EDURA,  -IDURA,  57 
-AIRE,  62 
-AL,  67 

-iL,  67 

-alh(a),   -elh(a),   -ilh(a), 
olh(a),  -ulh(a),  70 

-AM,  -IM,  -UM,  81 

-AMEN,  -EMEN,  IMEN,  85 

-AN,  ANA,  110 

-ANH,   -ANHA,   -ENHA,   -ENGA, 

ENJA,  ENH,  ONHA,  114 
-ANSA,  -ENSA,  116 
-AR,  127 

-ARIA,  (-AIRIa),  130 
-ART,  ARDA,  138 
-AS,  -ASA,  140 

-IS,  -ISA,  143 

-ATZ,  -ETZ,  -ITZ,  -UTZ,  144 

-ASTRE,  146 

-AT,  147 

-ATGE,  -ETGE,  -ITGE,  155 

-ATJT,  165 

-azo(n),  -ezo(n),  -izo(n),  165 

-EDA,  170 
-EL,  171 

-ENA,  176 

-enc,  -enca,  178 

-ERNA,  181 


-ES,  181 
-ESA,  185 
-ESC,  -ESCA,  186 
-ET,  -ETA,  188 
-EZA,  195 

-lA,  201 
-lER,  207 

-lERA,  229 

-IN,  234 
-INA,  236 
-ION,  238 

-ISME,  -ISTA,  239 

-IT,  239 
-OA,  239 

-OIRA, 240 
-OL,  OLA,  240 

-ON,  243 
-OR,  252 
-OT,  255 
-TAT,  257 
-IJRA,  261 

Forming  Adjectives 

-ABLE,  -IBLE  (-IVOL),  270 

-AC,  -EC,  -IC,  -oc,  -uc,  276 

-ADOR,  -EDOR,  -IDOR,  280 
-AL,  -IL,  287 

-AN,  293 

-ANH,  295 

-AR,  296 

-ART,  297 
-AT,  -IT,  298 

-EL,  305 
-ENC,  306 


605 


606 


Word-Formation  in  Provenqal 


-Es,  309 
-ESC,  310 
-ET,  311 
-lER,  313 

-IN,  318 
-ION,  320 
-IS,  -iTZ,  320 
-lu,  322 

-OLEN, 323 

-OL,  324 
-OS,  324 

-OTGE, 329 

-UT,  330 

Forming  Verbs 

-AR,  332 
-iR,  346 

-ALHAR,  -ELHAR,  -ILHAR,  -OLHAR, 

349 
-ASAR,  352 

-AISER,  -EISER,  -OISER,  353 
-EGAR,  -IGAR,  354 
-EJAR,  357 

-(e)zir,  363 

-IFICAR,  367 

-inar,  -onar,  368 

-IZAR,  371 


Forming  Adverbs 
-(a)men,  373 

-ADAMEN,      -IDAMEN,      -UDAMEN, 

374 

-AS,  377 

Double  Suffixes 

-ADIER,     (-IDIER),    -ad  aria, 

-atier,  ataria,  393 

ALES  (-ALEZA),  -ares,  (-AREZA), 

395 

-AIRADA,  -AIRAL,  -AIRATGE, 
-AIRET,  -AIRIA,  -AIRIER, 
-AIROL,  -AIRON,  398 

-ALIBR,  -ALATGE,  399 

-ALHON,  400 

-ANDIER,  -ENDIER,  400 

-ARENC,  401 

-ASIER,  -ASARIA,  -ASIL,  401 

-AREL,  402 

-ADIER,  AIRAN,  -ANDIER,  -ARAL, 
402 

-ARENC,  403 

-AREZ,  403 

-AIRAR,  403 


B.  PREFIXES 


Forming  Verbs 
A-,  412 

AB-,  BIS-,  COM-  (con-),  419 
CONTRA-,  421 

DE-,  423 
DES-,  425 

EM,  EN-,  431 
ENTRE-,  438 

ES-,  440 
FOR-,  446 

MES-,  447 

OLTRA-  (OUTRA-),  448 

PER-,  448 


POR-,  PRO-,  450 
RE-,  451 

SO-,  456 

SOBRE-,  456 

SOTZ-,  SOST-,  SOZ-,  SOS-,  458 

TRAS-,  (trans-,  TRES-),  460 

Forming  Nouns 
A-,  463 

ANTI-,  464 

BES-,  465 
CON-,  466 

CONTRA-,  467 


Index 


607 


DAVAN-,  468 
DENAN-,  469 

DE-,  469 
DES-,  469 

EN-,  470 

ENDE-,  472 
ENTRE-,  473 

ES-,  473 

FOR-,  MES-,  PRE-,  RE-,  475 

PER-,  476 

REIRE-,  477 
SOBRE-,  477 

SOTZ-,  479 

TRAS-,  479 

Forming  Adjectives 

A-,  481 
CON-,  482 

CONTRA-,  482 
DAVAN-,  DENAN-,  482 
DE-,  483 

EN-,  484 

ENTRE-,  485 

ES-,  485 
PER-,  486 

SOBRE-,  486 

SUB-,  488 

TEAS-,  488 


Double  Prefixes 
A-CON-,  491 
A-DE-,  491 
AD-RE-,  491 
A-FOR-,  491 
A-RE-,  491 
DE-RE-,  491 
DES-A-,  492 
DES-EN-,  492 
EN-PRO-,  492 
EN-CON-,  492 
EN-DE-,  493 
EN-DES-,  493 
EN-RE-,  493 
EN-TRAS-,  493 
ENTRE-ES-,  493 

ES-CON-,  493 

ES-DE-,  493 
ES-FOR-,  493 
ES-PER-,  493 
FOR-A-,  493 
MES-A-,  493 
RE-CON-,  494 
RE-DE-,  494 
REIRE-TRA-,  494 
SOBRE-A,  494 
SOBRE-DES,  494 
SOBRE-EN,  494 

SOTZ-A-,  494 


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made  most  comprehensible  to  students." — Classical  Weekly. 

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Greek  Architecture 

By  Allan  Marquant),  Ph.D.,  L.H.D.,  Professor  of  Art  and 
Archaeology  in  Princeton  University. 

Professor  Marquand,  in  this  interesting  and  scholarly  volume, 
passes  from  the  materials  of  construction  to  the  architectural  forms 
and  decorations  of  the  buildings  of  Greece,  and,  lastly,  to  its  monu- 
ments. Nearly  four  hundred  illustrations  assist  the  reader  in  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  subject. 

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Greek  Sculpture 

By  Ernt;st  A.  Gardn-er,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Archaeology  in 
University  College,  London. 

A  comprehensive  outline  of  our  present  knowledge  of  Greek 
sculpture,  distinguishing  the  different  schools  and  periods,  and 
showing  the  development  of  each.  This  volume,  fully  illustrated, 
fills  an  important  gap  and  is  widely  used  as  a  textbook. 

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Greek  Con^itutional  Hi^ory 

By  A.  H.  J.  GREEN^DGE,  :\I.A.,  Late  Lecturer  in  Hertford  Col- 
lege and  Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 

Most  authors  in  writing  of  Greek  History  emphasize  the 
structure  of  the  constitutions;  Mr.  Greenidge  lays  particular  stress 
upon  the  workings  of  these  constitutions.  With  this  purpose  ever 
in  view,  he  treats  of  the  development  of  Greek  public  law,  distin- 
guishing the  different  t>-pes  of  states  as  they  appear. 

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THE    M  ACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  FIFTH  AVENUE  ::  ::  ::  NEW  YORK 

Greek  and  Roman  Coins 

By  G.  F.  Hill,  M.A.,  of  the  Department  of  Coins  and  Medals 
in  the  British  Museum. 

All  the  information  needed  by  the  beginner  in  numismatics,  or 
for  ordinary  reference,  is  here  presented.  The  condensation  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  material  within  the  size  of  the  present  volume 
has  in  no  way  interfered  with  its  clearness  or  readableness. 

Cloth,  $2.25;  postpaid,  $2.38 

Greek  Athletic  Sports  and  Fe^ivals 

By  E.  Norman  Gardiner,  M.A.,  Sometime  Classical  Exhibitor 
of  Christ  Church  College,  O.xford. 

With  over  two  hundred  illustrations  from  contemporarj^  draw- 
ings, and  bright  descriptive  text,  this  work  will  prove  of  equal 
interest  to  the  general  reader  and  to  the  student  of  the  past.  Many 
of  the  probleins  with  which  it  deals — the  place  of  physical  training, 
games,  athletics,  in  daily  and  national  life — will  be  found  as  real  at 
the  present  time  as  they  were  in  the  far-off  palmy  days  of  Greece. 

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The  De^rudlion  of  Ancient  Rome 

By  RoDOLFO  Laxciani,  D.C.L.,  Oxford;  LL.D.,  Harvard;  Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  Topography  in  the  University  of  Rome. 

Rome,  the  fate  of  her  buildings  and  masterpieces  of  art,  is  the 
subject  of  this  profusely  illustrated  volume.  Professor  Lanciani 
gives  us  vivid  pictures  of  the  Eternal  City  at  the  close  of  the  different 
periods  of  history. 

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Roman  Fe^ivals 

B\-  W.  W.ARDE  Fowler,  M.A.,  Fellow  and  Sub-Rector  of 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford. 

This  book  covers  in  a  concise  form  almost  all  phases  of  the 
public  worship  of  the  Roman  state,  as  well  as  certain  ceremonies 
which,  strictly  speaking,  lay  outside  that  public  worship.  It  will 
be  found  very  useful  to  students  of  Roman  literature  and  history  as 
well  as  to  students  of  anthropology  and  the  history  of  religion. 

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Roman  Public  Life 

By  A.  H.  J.  Greexidge,  Late  Lecturer  in  Hertford  College  and 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford. 

The  growth  of  the  Roman  constitution  and  its  working  during 
the  dev^eloped  Republic  and  the  Principate  is  the  subject  which 
Mr.  Greenidge  here  set  for  himself.  All  important  aspects  of 
public  life,  municipal  and  provincial,  are  treated  so  as  to  reveal  the 
political  genius  of  the  Romans  in  connection  with  the  chief  prob- 
lems of  administration. 

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Monuments  of  the  Early  Church 

By  Walter  Lowrie,  i\LA.,  Late  Fellow  of  the  American 
School  cf  Classical  Studies  in  Rome,  Rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church, 
Rome. 

Nearly  two  hundred  photographs  and  drawings  of  the  most 
representative  monumental  remains  of  Christian  antiquity-,  accom- 
panied by  detailed  expositions,  make  this  volume  replete  with 
interest  for  the  general  reader  and  at  the  same  time  useful  as  a 
handbook  for  the  student  of  Christian  archaeology  in  all  its 
branches. 

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Monuments  of  Chri^ian  Rome 

By  Arthur  L.  Frothingham,  Ph.D.,  Sometime  Associate 
Director  of  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome, 
formerly  Professor  of  Archaeology^  and  Ancient  History  in  Prince- 
ton University. 

"The  learned  author  reviews  the  monuments  of  Rome  during 
the  ten  centuries  from  Constantine  to  the  Renaissance."  "The 
plan  of  the  volume  is  simple  and  admirable.  The  first  part 
comprises  a  historical  sketch;  the  second,  a  classification  of  the 
monuments." — The  Outlook. 

Cloth,  $2.25;  postpaid,  $2.43 


Athens  and  Its  Monuments 

By    Charles   Heald   Weller,    L^niversity  of   Iowa.     Fully 
illustrated.    {In  Press.) 


'!8I>    M- 


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